Greeting to CLIMIT

“The biggest discoveries are those that coming generations take for granted”, said the Scottish physician and microbiologist, Alexander Fleming when he transformed the history of science. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945 for his groundbreaking discovery of penicillin – one of the most significant scientific advances of the twentieth century.

I cannot predict whether today’s scientists researching CO₂ management will be honoured in the same way, but what is clear is that technology like this is very important to the fight against global warming. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) faces scepticism due to its high costs and complexity. Nevertheless, Norwegian governments have chosen to take a lead in CO₂ management for the simple reason that we cannot afford not to.

Established in 2005, CLIMIT has contributed to significant developments in the area of CO₂ management. Heidelberg Materials’ cement factory in Brevik will soon be opening its first major capture facility with support from the Norwegian authorities and the CLIMIT programme.

CLIMIT has enabled research communities and industry to establish close ties to leading research communities internationally, which has in turn improved the quality f their own deliverables. The programme has accelerated technological development in terms of both research and industrial activities, and Norway is now among the world’s leaders in the field of CO₂ management. Foreign delegations visit Norway to learn about CO₂ management, which is a source of pride and new opportunities for technological development and industrial growth.

As yet, we still have a way to go on our road ahead to make CCS available for a global market.  This is why we will continue investing in the CLIMIT programme. I wish you all good luck in our CCS journey!

Terje Aasland, Norwegian Minister of Energy

20 years of strong CCS technology development

Technologies developed through the CLIMIT programme will build up under the Norwegian government’s strategies and work regarding carbon capture and storage (CCS) as a climate initiative, both for achieving national climate goals and so that the technology can be rolled out internationally. Since 2005, we have seen a major development in the programme’s mandate.

2.1 Design of the programme

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CLIMIT’s priorities are laid out in a separate programme plan, which defines the types of projects that can be supported. The programme plan is revised every three to four years. These revisions have been necessary to follow trends in technology development within the framework and mandate of the programme. As such, the CLIMIT programme has moved from just supporting projects related to CCS at gas-fired power plants to now including technologies for both the energy and industrial sectors. A key condition for the programme is the requirement for long-term carbon storage for CCS to be viewed as a viable climate initiative.

2.2 Research, development and demonstration

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The cooperation between Gassnova and the Research Council of Norway has been incredibly fruitful, not least because the programme has a joint secretariat.

CLIMIT R&D is the research arm of the programme, managed by the Research Council of Norway. It focuses on basic research and development of new knowledge and technologies for CCS.

CLIMIT Demo is the demonstration arm, managed by Gassnova. It supports the development, piloting and demonstration of technologies at larger scale to reduce risks and costs.

Several projects have progressed from R&D to Demo. It is the dialogue and understanding in the secretariat which is important for getting this to work for applicants. Examples of such projects are presented in the following chapters.

2.3 What is going on around us?

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“The expansion of carbon capture and storage as a method to combat climate change has been slow due to a weak market for these solutions. A significant barrier has been the absence of robust business models that offer investors the predictability and earning potential needed to commit to CCS projects.”

Interest in and the relevance of CCS is well documented, but the current market weakness has resulted in a weak ability to pay and justified scepticism from private stakeholders interested in building fullscale facilities to capture carbon.

However, the CLIMIT programme has been able to make a difference here. The best example is the Longship project, where previous CLIMIT projects have been vital for Norway now being able to realise large-scale carbon capture and storage. Another example is the cluster projects. CLIMIT has contributed to industrial actors cooperating on common CCS infrastructure. In other words, CLIMIT is vital to the work on reducing industrial greenhouse gas emissions.

2.4 Technology trends and future opportunities

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When CCS projects need to be realised – such as when Longship moves into its operational phase, for example – experience from the operational phase will offer major learning opportunities that will provide a basis for improvements of technologies and solutions that are already mature. These learning opportunities will contribute to the further development of well-functioning technologies towards a standardisation that will reduce costs and risks.

It is reasonable to expect that interest in wholly new solutions based on CCS will grow in the years ahead and will be of significance for which development projects will be picked up by Norwegian industry. The production of hydrogen from natural gas with CCS, direct air capture or in combination with the use of biomass, use of carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) and international cooperation projects are relevant examples in this context. CLIMIT will also be important for promoting such technologies.

2.5 Collaboration and networking

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CLIMIT promote collaboration between industry, academia and international partners. This is crucial for strengthening the dissemination of knowledge and ensuring relevance for industrial use both in Norway and internationally.

2.6 Communication and dissemination

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It is important that CLIMIT-supported projects contribute to the dissemination of information to provide the public and decision makers with sufficient knowledge about CCS as a necessary climate initiative. Projects are encouraged to also include public information campaigns via social media, discussion fora and other public spaces.

We look forward to our continued cooperation with those receiving CLIMIT support.

Capture

3.1 CLIMIT’s 20-year-long contribution to the development of carbon capture and storage

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CLIMIT is the national programme for research, development and demonstration of CO₂ management technology. For two decades, the programme has been a key actor in the development of technology for carbon capture and storage (CCS). From early laboratory studies to commercial solutions, the programme has supported over 800 projects, making significant contributions to reducing emissions from the energy and industrial sectors. The programme today plays a key role in taking technologies from the lab to market.

Capturing CO₂ from energy and industrial sources requires efficient separation processes. Existing technologies are facing challenges such as energy requirements, material resilience, gas selectivity, and the cost of capture and associated support processes. Through its work, CLIMIT has supported technology development in all these areas.

3.1.1 CLIMIT’s role in technology development

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For the first ten years, CLIMIT focussed primarily on supporting technology developers.

Read more about industry consortia and cluster work.

Throughout its 20 years, CLIMIT has contributed to solvent-based technologies reducing their energy requirements by 35-40 percent. Norwegian-developed technology has progressed from laboratories to international markets, with companies such as SLB Capturi and Baker Hughes having invested in Norwegian solutions.

3.1.2 Carbon capture technologies

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Traditionally, carbon capture has been divided into three main categories:

1. Post-combustion: Capture of CO₂ after combustion.
2. Pre-combustion: Separation of CO₂ and hydrogen before combustion.
3. Oxy-combustion: Combustion in an oxygen-rich atmosphere for easier carbon capture.

CLIMIT has supported projects within these categories and has prioritised solutions such as solvents, sorbents, membranes and oxy-fuel technology. Cryogenic processes are less prominent in CLIMIT’s portfolio, as these are typically used in the liquification of CO₂ before transport.

While solvent technology has matured quickly, membrane and looping technologies have received increased attention as energy-efficient solutions for sectors without access to surplus heat.

3.1.3 Solvent technology – the most mature solution

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Solvent-based technologies have been a key focus area since CLIMIT’s inception. This method, which uses liquids to absorb and release CO₂ are the most commercially mature technologies for post combustion capture. Solvent projects have reduced energy requirements significantly during the last years, and more than 50 projects have received support from CLIMIT Demo for testing of solvents in pilot facilities such as SINTEF’s Tiller pilot and theTechnology Centre Mongstad (TCM).

CLIMIT has supported mobile pilot testing, such as SLB Capturi’s mobile unit, testing their solvent technology capturing CO₂ from industries such as cement, waste-to-energy, refinery, and others. SLB Capturi’s mobile unit has, by testing in real industrial environment, verified the performance of amine-based solvents at various industries, which has accelerated the commercialisation of the technology.

Read more about CLIMIT’s support for developing solvent technology and how this has contributed to commercial solutions.

3.1.4 Sorbents and looping technology

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Sorbent technologies, such as carbonate looping, use solid materials that  capture CO₂.

The Moving Bed Carbonate Looping technology developed by Fjell Technology Group with support from CLIMIT uses lime-based materials that are recognised and cost-effective. The technology could be well-suited for the cement and lime industry being familiar with the lime-based material at high temperature operations.

3.1.5 Membrane technology – the solution of the future

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Membranes are an exciting option for industries without surplus heat, such as cement production, and have the potential to be a cost-effective solution. CLIMIT has supported a range of projects for the development of membranes, including as a technology tested at the Heidelberg Materials test centre in Brevik.

Air Products has also carried out membrane testing at Returkraft with support from CLIMIT. The project assessed the efficiency of the membranes by capturing CO₂ from Returkraft’s flue gas.

Membranes, which separate gases without chemical regeneration, is particularly suitable for emission sources with high concentrations of CO₂, such as the lime or cement industries.

3.1.6 Oxy-fuel and Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC)

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CLC technologies, which uses metal oxides to create an oxygen-rich combustion atmosphere, have received over NOK 70 million in support from CLIMIT. This method reduces the need for a separate capture facility, which will be positive financially for certain industries.

Read more about the application of CLC technology, SINTEF

3.1.7 From laboratory to commercial operation

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Over 270 capture projects have received support from CLIMIT, totalling over NOK 1.7 billion in funding. CLIMIT’s contribution has not only triggered equivalent investments from industry, but also helped create a robust CCS ecosystem in Norway.

Multiple projects have been led by SINTEF, which has built up knowledge and world-class expertise within CCS. SINTEF’s Tiller pilot in Trondheim has played a crucial role in qualifying technologies for industrial emission sources. Testing at TCM has further validated these technologies for global implementation.

CLIMIT has strengthened collaboration between academia and industry by funding projects led by SINTEF and NTNU. This has created a platform to connect basic research to practical technological development. CLIMIT’s financial contribution has acted as a catalyst for taking CCS technology from research to commercial application.

Read more about SINTEF’s work on solvent development and pilot testing with CLIMIT support.

Many projects have had international significance, including:

• SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Carbon Capture): Technology developed with CLIMIT support is now used commercially, including by Heidelberg Materials at their plant in Brevik.
• Compact Carbon Capture (3C): Technology developed by Fjell Technology Group and continued by Baker Hughes.
• Hydrogen MemTech: Membrane technology that is attracting international capital.

3.1.8 CLIMIT – A central driving force for CCS

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For 20 years, CLIMIT has been an important driver of CCS technology development. With support for research, pilot projects and commercial implementation, the programme has contributed to Norway becoming a leading stakeholder in the global effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

CLIMIT’s contribution has facilitated Norwegian-developed technologies being used commercially in projects such as Heidelberg Materials’ plant in Brevik and international efforts for cement and waste incineration.

3.2 From lab to Longship – with CLIMIT support

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Through the Longship project, Norway has taken a leading international role in carbon capture and storage (CCS). The journey to realising the project has been long and challenging, particularly when it came to the development of practical fullscale carbon capture technology. Support from CLIMIT has been vital for the development and testing of technology that can now be implemented at the Heidelberg Materials capture facility at its cement factory in Brevik.

This article presents two of the largest CLIMIT-supported projects: The SOLVit programme and Heidelberg Materials’ test centre in Brevik.

SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Carbon Capture) developed its amine technology through the SOLVit programme. After extensive testing at the Heidelberg Materials (formerly Norcem) test centre in Brevik, the technology was chosen as the preferred solution for fullscale demonstration of carbon capture at the cement factory. The capture facility is a core part of the Norwegian CCS demonstration project Longship.

3.2.1 The SOLVit programme

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The SOLVit programme (2008-2015) was a major research and development programme that focussed on improving carbon capture solvent and process technologies. The programme was led by Aker, with research activities carried out by SINTEF Industry in Trondheim in collaboration with Aker and the Department of Chemistry at NTNU. A number of industry partners and potential end users of carbon capture technologies, including EnBW, E.ON, Scottish Power and Statkraft, contributed actively to various parts of SOLVIT

The programme was partially funded by CLIMIT and the Research Council of Norway, with a budget of NOK 332 million, of which NOK 132 million (40 percent) came from CLIMIT.

3.2.1.1 Objectives

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The primary goal was to reduce the cost of carbon capture from emission sources through the development of more energy-efficient solvent systems and adjusted process technologies. Other goals included developing more environmentally-friendly solvents and demonstrations of performance improvements of the new solvents at pilot scale.

3.2.1.2 Programme overview

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The SOLVit programme was implemented in three phases, with each phase building on experience from the previous ones:

• Phase 1 (2008-2010): The development of functional solvents, establishing laboratory facilities and a stationary pilot facility at SINTEF Tiller.
• Phase 2 (2011-2012): Characterisation and pilot testing of first-generation solvents, focussing on the development of new, ground-breaking environmentally-friendly solvents and a reduction in the environmental impact of the carbon capture process.
• Phase 3 (2013-2015): Qualification of solvents through pilot testing of various industrial waste gases, demonstration at the Test Centre Mongstad, as well as the development of technology for cost reductions for carbon capture.

3.2.3 Organisation and training

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SOLVit’s work was organised into four main areas: Basic studies, modelling, technology development, and pilot testing and demonstration. Through the SOLVit project, highly sensitive LCMS methods were also developed for quantifying degradation products in solvents, with sensitivity of less than 1 ng/ml. Methods were developed for over 50 amines, as well as specific methods for alkylamines, nitrosamines and other degradation products.

A training programme was also introduced at NTNU, which contributed to basic research on solvent-based capture processes. Many doctoral and masters students carried out their studies through this programme, contributing to the training of qualified researchers within carbon capture technologies.

3.2.4 SOLVit provided vital results

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Pilot testing showed that SOLVit solvents were robust, energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. An improvement of up to 35 percent in energy consumption compared with MEA (Monoethanolamine) was demonstrated, as well as significantly lower solvent consumption and degradation rates. Amine emissions and degradation products could be kept at far lower levels, reducing uncertainty related to the environmental impact of amine-based capture processes.

In summary, the eight-year-long SOLVit programme provided increased understanding of solvent-based capture processes at both the basic and industrial level. Many new solvents for carbon capture from waste gases were developed. The programme contributed significantly to the maturation of Aker’s carbon capture technology, and reduced the risks related to scaling up and large-scale implementation.

For more information about SOLVIT, see here:

• SOLVit – climit.no
• Highlights and Main Findings from the 8 Year SOLVit R&D Programme – Bringing Solvents and Technology from Laboratory to Industry

3.2.2 Norcem Test Centre (Heidelberg Materials Brevik)

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The primary aim of the test centre was to evaluate and compare selected carbon capture technologies to find the most suitable option for emissions from the Heidelberg Materials cement factory in Brevik. The project had a total budget of NOK 93 million and received NOK 70 million (75 percent) from CLIMIT Demo. ESA (European Surveillance Authority) approved the high level of state support. The project ran from 2013 to 2015.

The project focussed on the capture part of the CCS chain, with a focus on CO₂ capture capacity, energy consumption, impact of pollutants and costs. The utilisation of residual heat from the factory was also important.

The test centre project consisted of two main parts:
1) Pilot testing:Testing under real-world conditions on emission sources from the cement factory in Brevik 
2) Fullscale evaluations: Field testing and modelling for fullscale implementation

In Phase I, four technologies were selected: Aker Carbon Capture Amine Technology, RTI Solid Sorbent Technology, KEMA GL/NTNU & Yodfat Engineers Membrane Technology, and Alstom Power Regenerative Calcium Cycle. In Phase 2, RTI Solid Sorbent Technology Phase II and Air Products & NTNU Membrane Technology were studied.

3.2.2.1 Results and further work

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Testing covered needs for technological optimisations. Aker’s amine technology was identified as the most mature and ready for fullscale demonstration. As a result, SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Carbon Capture) is chosen as the technology supplier for Heidelberg Materials’ fullscale carbon capture project, which is today a part of Longship.

For more information about the Norcem test centre (Heidelberg Materials in Brevik)

• CO₂ Capture Test Facility at Norcem Brevik, Project Phase II, Test Step 1

3.3 Technological diversity driving future CCS solutions

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Over the past 20 years, CLIMIT’s support of carbon capture projects have reflected a major change in emission sources. Initially focusing on fossil-fuel power plants, the scope has expanded to hard-to-decarbonize industries and now to direct air capture. These developments underscore the importance of diversity in technology in delivering efficient and sustainable carbon capture and storage solutions.

The article ”CLIMIT has contributed to the development of carbon capture technology for 20 years” highlights the most significant carbon capture technologies and CLIMIT’s role in their development. This article discusses general trends and and anticipates key factors for carbon capture and CCS in the coming years.

3.3.1 From one to many: Development of carbon capture from different emission sources

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CLIMIT began as a programme supporting development of carbon capture at gas-fired power plants. In 2008 it expanded to also include coal-fired power plants, and by 2010 capture from energy intensive industry was incorporated. In 2021, the programme removed the requirement to specify emission sources, allowing support for technologies capturing CO₂ from the atmosphere.

This evolution in the CLIMIT programme illustrates the change in the market and the need for flexible capture technologies capable of handling a broad range of emission sources, which vary significantly in annual emission quantities, CO₂ concentration, and other pollutants. Integrating capture technologies with different emission sources presents unique challenges that must be addressed individually.

Another trend is the shift from large, site-specific capture facilities to more cost-effective, modular solutions that can be quickly deployed and adapted to different needs. A notable example is SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Carbon Capture) with its Just Catch solution which may simplify the implementation of capture facilities and reduce costs.

3.3.2 Amine technology – a comprehensive carbon capture solution

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Amine technology is renowned its broad applicability and adaptability to different CO₂ concentrations, ranging from 2% to 30%, making it a flexible solution for numerous emission sources. For waste gas with around 10 percent CO₂ content, the energy consumption for many commercial amine-based capture facilities is around 2.5-3 GJ/tonnes of CO₂. This efficiency, coupled with the technology’s ability to utilise surplus heat in the desorption process, makes amines the preferred solution for emission points where surplus heat is available, reducing both operating costs and energy consumption.

In recent years, capture rate has become an increasingly important KPI for industrial facilities with point source emissions. Previous requirements typically demanded a 85-90 percent capture rate, allowing at least 10 percent of CO₂ in waste gases to be emitted into the atmosphere. Now, requirements often exceed 95 percent, with the goal of approaching 100 percent.

Amin plant at Technology Centre Mongstad. Photo: TCM

Amine technology excels in this area. Many suppliers, including SLB Capturi, have demonstrated the ability to achieve capture rates over 95 percent. This was confirmed through the CO₂ Hub North project, which tested increased capture rates from point source emissions­­ – a more cost-effective and environmentally-friendly strategy compared to combining lower capture rates from emission sources with the use of DACCS to achieve net zero emissions. CLIMIT provided financial support to this project.

3.3.3 Environmental consciousness has increased requirements for capture facilities

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For many years, Norway has been a leader when it comes to environmental aspects and controlling emissions in relation to carbon capture. Internationally, there is a growing demand for environmentally friendly solutions. Amine emissions have been a significant research focus in Norway. This work has garnered increasing international interest.

Other solvents, such as K₂CO₃ or membrane technology, are particularly appealing for industries without access to surplus heat and with relatively high CO₂ partial pressure in the waste gas, such as the cement industry. These solutions offer low to no amine emissions but may struggle to achieve capture rates over 95 percent.

There is also a heightened focus on facilitating capture by pre-treating the waste gas and including liquefaction as a part of the capture concept, including at pilot facilities. Improved heat utilisation in the capture process through various heat exchange methods has also gained attention.

3.3.4 Solutions for in-built carbon capture

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Industries with significant CO₂ emissions are exploring options to modify process steps to remove CO₂ in a more concentrated form (“ready captured”), avoiding the need for expensive capture facilities that require separate resources and new expertise. This approach will necessitate changes to existing production facilities and require extensive testing and development of new technologies and process steps. For most, this will be a post-2050 solution.

Examples of such projects at CLIMIT Demo include:

1. Devleopment of HAL ZERO Technology by Hydro Aluminium
   
   The project that led to Hydro Aluminium’s HAL ZERO focus: Project 618242 LowCO2Al with NOK 16.25 million support from CLIMIT, covering 65 percent of total costs. Project period: 2019-2021.
   
   A CLIMIT supported project that are a part of HAL ZERO and run parallel with the HAL ZERO pilot supported by Enova: 622124 HalZero CO₂ to CO – concept studies. The project received NOK 4.5 million from CLIMIT, covering 50 percent of total costs. Project period: 2022-2024.
   
2. Electrification of the calcination process – Heidelberg Materials
   
   Project 617333 Combined Calcination and CO2-capture in Cement Clinker Production by Use of CO2-neutral Electrical Energy (6CP) – Phase 1. The project received NOK 1.7 million from CLIMIT, covering 65 percent of total costs. Project period: 2018-2020.
   
   Project 620035 Combined calcination and CO2 capture in cement clinker production by use of CO2-neutral electrical energy – Phase 2. The project received NOK 6.25 million from CLIMIT, covering 62 percent of total costs. Project period: 2020-2024.

The work in the above-mentioned projects led by Heidelberg Materials have now progressed further in the project ELECTRA, supported by the EU, cf. https://www.electra-horizon.eu

3.3.4 Greater focus on carbon dioxide removal (CDR)

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Carbon Dioxide Removal has gained significant attention over the past five years. CDR involves targeted capture of CO₂ from the atmosphere for permanent and secure storage, as outlined in Innovation Roadmap – Mission Innovation CDR

CDR technology can be categorized into three areas:

• Direct Air Capture (DAC)
• CDR from biomass, known as Biomass Carbon Dioxide Removal and Storage (BiCRS)
• Enhanced Mineralisation (EM)

CLIMIT has supported some smaller air capture studies. However, BiCRS has been the primary recipient of program funds for industries exploring options for capturing and storaging biogenic CO₂ from combustion or processing of biomass (bioCCS).

3.3.5 Biomass and possibilities of bioCCS

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BioCCS is as a methodology that facilitates CCS through improved business models with revenues from the sale of carbon credits. There is also an increasing interest in CDR from smaller emission sources of pure biogenic CO₂ emissions (no or little content of fossile CO₂) through bioCCS.

The waste incineration industry has approximately 50 percent biogenic CO₂ in its waste gas. Capture ad stored biogenic CO₂ may allow for the sale of credits if the carbon calculations show that more CO₂ equivalents are captured than emitted. See also information about the KAN collaboration in the Waste-to-Energy industry in the article Industry consortia and cluster work (Norwgian)

Norwegian companies in the Energy Intensive Industry such as Elkem and Eramet have also received support from CLIMIT for carbon capture projects and feasibility studies at separate facilities. These industries replace coal with biomass to reduce fossil-fuel emissions. As Waste-to-Energy facilities, these will have a mixture of fossil- and biogenic carbon emissions.

3.3.6 Development of infrastructure and transport solutions for Norwegian emission sources

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One of the largest challenges for implementing carbon capture and storage (CCS) in Norway is the lack of infrastructure and transport solutions. The long distances to storage sites also create complexities that require innovative solutions, according to a report from Oslo Economics, “Virkemidler for karbonfangst fra industri og avfallsforbrenning” (Norwegian).

Norwegian emission sources, such as the Energy Intensive Industry and Waste-to-Energy Industry, have relatively low carbon emissions per point source, typically ranging from 100-450 kilotonnes per year. This is significantly lower than emission points in other European countries, where emissions can reach millions of tonnes annually. Norwegian industry is also geographically dispersed, increasing the need to capture CO₂ from more sources to achieve sufficient volume for transport and storage.

Lyse, alongside partners in Rogaland, is working on developing smaller, emission-free ships that can collect CO₂ from various emission points and transport it to intermediate storage sites before further pipeline transport to storage sites.

This project, supported by CLIMIT, demonstrates how technology and cooperation can overcome logistical barriers. Many other important transport projects, also supported by CLIMIT, are under development and address similar needs.

For some time, Northern Lights in Øygarden has been the only available storage option for CO₂ in Norway. Now with more operators and storage areas on the market, transport to several new storage sites with carbon capture from multiple sources is planned. This includes expanded infrastructure that facilitates the integration of CCU (carbon capture and utilisation) as well as opportunities to handle emissions from smaller sources such as biogas facilities. Several municipalities and county councils have adopted ambitious targets to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, further increasing the need for robust CO₂ infrastructure.

Interest in onshore geological storage of CO₂ in Norway is also increasing. Although this is still in the research and development stage, it represents a potential future solution and an important supplement to offshore storage.

3.3.7 Future technological progress in carbon capture and storage

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Technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, advanced models and the development of 3D, 4D and 5D printing will be of increasingly importance for carbon capture and storage in the coming years. These tools offer new possibilities to optimize processes, reduce costs, and improve performance across the entire CCS value chain.

The development of new materials also enables more efficient and sustainable solutions.  Materials such as amorphous alloys, metal foam, nanocrystalline materials, self-repairing materials and advanced alloys may have the potential to revolutionize carbon capture, transport and storage technologies. These materials can enhance performance of existing systems and facilitate the design of more robust and flexible solutions.

Technological progress by use of AI will not only impact CCS, but also contribute to the transformation of the energy market. The increasing integration between CCS technologies and future energy systems highlights the need for innovation and cross-sector collaboration. More information on this can be found in the report ICEF-AI-Climate-Roadmap-Second-Edition-2024.pdf

With technological diversity as a driving force and focussing on innovation, CCS is one of the keys to achieving global climate goals. With support from CLIMIT, Norway continues to be a leader in the development of groundbreaking solutions.

3.4 CLIMIT supports the development of compact plants for CO₂ capture

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The development of compact facilities for carbon capture from small to medium-sized point emissions is crucial for the success of CO₂ management, driving the additional CO₂ emissions reduction needed to meet global climate targets large parts of the carbon-intensive industries, including oil and gas and broader industrial operations. CLIMIT therefore provides significant support to technology projects that pave the way for the commercialization of such facilities.  

One of CLIMIT’s areas of focus are the development of innovative technology and solutions. This is also one of CLIMIT’s performance targets which focuses on the development of new ground-breaking CO2 handling technologies.

Baker Hughes Compact Carbon Capture technology is a CO₂ capture solution that uses centrifugal forces to distribute solvents, improving mass transfer and efficiency in the capture process. This technology has been developed to reduce the space required for a carbon capture plant. This can help reduce the “footprint” by up to 75 percent, which in turn reduces investment costs by up to 50 percent compared to conventional technologies. The compact size makes it possible to offer easier retrofittable, modular and scalable units for small to medium-sized point emissions that can be more easily integrated into existing facilities in industry and on offshore installations.

Innovation from idea to finished commercial product requires time and resources. CLIMIT-Demo answers this challenge with financial contributions to the development of solutions that can make important contributions to cost reductions and the wide international spread of CO₂ management.  The developers of the Compact Carbon Capture technology received the first pledge of support in 2007 and until 2024 have received a total of NOK 88 million. On average, this support has accounted for 54 per cent of total development costs. An ongoing project is supported with NOK 20 million, which constitutes 47 per cent of the development costs.

3.4.1 Traditional challenges and innovation

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Traditional carbon capture involves the use of relatively tall absorption columns (towers) where the flue gas meets CO₂-binding solvents. This method often requires large facilities with tall structures, which limits the areas of application and entails significant investment costs.

Fjell Technology Group, together with partners, has developed a compact solution by using rotating technology that increases the contact surface between the solvent and the exhaust gas. With this method, the time the flue gas needs in the capture unit (absorption part) is reduced, and provides more efficient and faster regeneration of solvent in the desorber part. In this way, the plant becomes smaller and more efficient. The technology is solvent neutral, meaning it can use different types of solvents, including those that are more concentrated and viscous, to absorb CO₂ more efficiently. See sketch of the technology below from Baker Hughes.

3.4.2 Cooperation and development

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The collaboration between Fjell Technology Group, Equinor, Sintef, and CMR Prototech started in 2007. The group developed a compact desorber that separates CO₂ from the solvents after capture. After a break in the development of the absorber part, Fjell Technology Group took up the task again in 2015, with support from the CLIMIT program and funding from Equinor. An international recognition of the solution occurred in March 2020 when the Compact Carbon Capture technology was recognized as an Energy Innovation Pioneer during IHS Markit’s CERAWeek (Cambridge Energy Research Associates).

This was decisive for the progress of the project, and led to the establishment of the company Compact Carbon Capture AS which became part of Baker Hughes later in 2020.

3.4.3 Baker Hughes’ acquisitions and current technology deployment

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In November 2020, Baker Hughes announced that it had entered into an agreement to purchase the company Compact Carbon Capture AS. This was part of the company’s strategy to lead the way in the energy transition, by offering solutions for the decarbonisation of carbon-intensive industries. Baker Hughes isaccelerating the development of the Compact Carbon Capture technology for commercial use globally, with the aim of being able to offer one of the industry’s lowest costs per tonne of captured CO₂.

The collaboration with Equinor and Sintef continues in an ongoing CLIMIT-supported project led by Baker Hughes’ Norwegian subsidiary, Compact Carbon Capture AS.

3.5 Electrochemical hydrogen production

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Protonic Membrane Reformer (PMR) technology was developed through projects 618191 [1] and 620208 [2], led by CoorsTek Membrane Sciences. This is a single-stage process for converting natural gas into hydrogen.

3.5.1 Article in Science

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Steam methane reforming and water-gas shift occur inside catalytic membrane tubes and the separation of hydrogen occurs by electrolytically pumping it across the membranes so that hydrogen is transported as protons to the outside of the membrane. This allows carbon capture to become an integrated part of the process and also involves a high degree of heat integration. The project results were published in a 2022 Science article [3], “Single-step hydrogen production from NH₃, CH₄, and biogas in stacked proton ceramic reactors”.

3.5.2 Increased technology maturity

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Project 618191, which was carried out over the period 2019-2020, aimed to increase the maturity of this technology. The project’s three work packages focussed on: the development and production of membranes, performance testing and developing simulation models. The production method for complete membrane stacks was developed and the devices produced were tested under industrial conditions.

3.5.3 Scaling up the technology

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Project 620208, which was carried out from 2020 to 2022, built further on the results from Phase I. The primary goal was to scale up the technology through pilot testing. The project included performance and lifetime testing and engineering, building and testing of two pilots with a capacity of 2kg of hydrogen per day. Lifetime testing reached 3,100 hours, and the results confirmed high performance in the production of high purity hydrogen.

3.5.4 EU Horizon project ammonia as an energy carrier

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CoorsTek Membrane Sciences’ most recent initiative with protonic membrane reformer technology focuses on ammonia as an energy carrier. The EU Horizon project “Electrified Single Stage Ammonia Cracking to Compressed Hydrogen” (2023-2026) [4] aims to further develop the technology for converting ammonia into hydrogen through a single-step process.

3.5.5 References

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1. 618191 Protonic membrane reformer technology for conversion of natural gas to hydrogen and CO₂. https://climit.no/en/project/protonic-membrane-reformer-technology-for-conversion-of-natural-gas-to-hydrogen-and-co2/
2. 620208 Conversion of natural gas to hydrogen and compressed CO₂ using protonic membrane reformer technology — PROTONIC Phase II. https://climit.no/prosjekt/conversion-of-natural-gas-to-hydrogen-and-compressed-co2-using-protonic-membrane-reformer-technology-protonic-phase-ii/
3. Science publication; Electrochemical production of hydrogen from natural gas. https://climit.no/en/news/science-publication-electrochemical-production-of-hydrogen-from-natural-gas/
4. Electrified Single Stage Ammonia Cracking to Compressed Hydrogen. https://prosjektbanken.forskningsradet.no/en/project/EU/101112144?Kilde=EU&distribution=Ar&chart=bar&calcType=funding&Sprak=no&sortBy=date&sortOrder=desc&resultCount=30&offset=60&Organisasjon.3=SINTEF+AS&source=EU&projectId=101112823

3.6 CLIMIT has contributed to the development of technology for the use of fossil-free fuel

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Since its establishment in 2005, the CLIMIT programme has supported the development of carbon capture and storage technologies. This also includes technology development for the use of fossil-free fuels. Under the BIGH₂ umbrella, SINTEF has worked, together with research partners and industry, on the use of hydrogen and ammonia in gas turbines since 2007. These projects have contributed to new knowledge and new gas turbine burner designs. The technology is now ready to take the next step to full-scale demonstration.

3.6.1 BIGH₂ received support in 2007

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The first two projects under BIGH₂ started in 2007: “Enabling Pre-Combustion CCS Plants (SP 1 and SP 2)” (1820701 and 1820702). The projects focussed on hydrogen combustion with low NO_X formation and had a long-term goal of developing new gas turbine burner technology for hydrogen combustion with NO_X emissions of less than 10 ppm. Numerical flow simulations, together with literature studies and laboratory studies, were a central part of these projects. This also included direct numerical simulation (DNS) of the turbulent flow around the fuel nozzle. An important result of “BIGH₂ Innovation / Phase I” was the understanding that traditional fuel injection through fuel nozzles and crossing jets is a critical design problem for hydrogen-fired combustion systems.

3.6.2 New burner concept

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In 2012, “BIGH₂ Innovation / Phase 2 (203716)” began with a focus on developing a new burner concept for Alstom’s GT24/26 gas turbine. This involved lean premixed combustion of hydrogen-rich fuels in stationary gas turbines. The ambition for low NO_X emissions as well as the efficiency of the turbine was maintained and continued. The project carried out numerical simulations and tested burner models, as well as full-scale demonstration of Alstoms B-EV gas turbines fired with up to 47% (vol.) hydrogen mixed with natural gas.

3.6.3 In 2017 ammonia was included

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In the project “BIGH2 / Phase III (617137)”, which started in 2017, the focus was expanded from hydrogen as a fuel to also include ammonia. The goal was the same as the previous projects – use hydrogen-based fuels in gas turbines with low NO_X emissions without reducing efficiency. The project started by developing a chemical kinetics scheme for hydrogen/ammonia flames adapted to combustion in gas turbines. The research demonstrated, through advanced numerical simulations and laboratory experiments, that the optimal method for burning ammonia in a gas turbine is through the use of a Rich-Quench-Lean (RQL) strategy in the design of the combustion chamber. Finally, the project also demonstrated low NO_X hydrogen firing in a Siemens industrial gas turbine (SGT-600).

3.6.4 Will we be able to remove carbon?

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The last project in the series, “BIGH₂ Innovation / Phase 4 (623349)”, was approved in 2023 and is still ongoing. This project continued the collaboration with Siemens and aims at full-scale demonstration. The project will develop, test and demonstrate the safe, efficient and clean combustion (low-NO_X) of hydrogen and ammonia as fossil-free energy carriers in an advanced and state-of-the-art gas turbine combustion system, as well as the unaffected ability to burn natural gas cleanly and efficiently as a back-up fuel in the same combustion system. This will require a radical redesign of the gas turbine’s combustion system, with axial fuel injection in two combustion stages. This approach is the key to achieving the desired flexibility for different types of fuel such as hydrogen, ammonia and natural gas. This enables the removal of CO₂ from gas turbines without loss of efficiency and with clean combustion (low-NO_x).  It will provide important contributions to the CO₂ value chain by decarbonising industry and energy resources, at the same time as also laying the foundation for new technology and solutions.

3.6.5 References

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3.7 From laboratory to commercial membranes for hydrogen production and CCS

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Hydrogen Mem-Tech AS (Reinertsen New Energy), in collaboration with SINTEF, has developed a palladium-based membrane technology to separate hydrogen from natural gas or biogas-based hydrogen production. CLIMIT has supported this work since 2011 and the technology is now commercialised.

3.7.1 The road to commercialisation

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Support was first provided in 2011 for the project “CO₂ purification using hydrogen membranes (212745)”. This initiative was based on SINTEF’s patented technology for the production of palladium membranes with a thickness of down to 1-2 µm. Membranes are used to separate hydrogen from other gases during hydrogen production based on natural gas or biogas. In 2015, work started on scaling up and establishing a pilot facility at Equinor’s methane production facility at Tjeldbergodden, “CO₂-capture and hydrogen production by use of Pd-membranes (241447)”.

3.7.2 Hydrogen Mem-Tech established

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In 2017, Hydrogen Mem-Tech was established and the technology was further developed through the project “Further development and long-term testing of palladium membranes for the production of CO₂-free hydrogen (619114)”. This also includes pilot testing at Tjeldbergodden. CLIMIT has also supported “Enhanced lifetime of Pd-based membranes (281824)”.

Ammonia is an interesting hydrogen carrier and Hydrogen Mem-Tech’s latest initiative is in converting ammonia to hydrogen (“PALLAMONIA (332357)”).

3.7.3 References

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• CCS creates new industries
• 241447 CO₂ capture and hydrogen production by use of Pd-membranes
• 281824 Enhanced lifetime of Pd-based membranes
• 332357 PALLAMONIA

3.8 Pilot testing vital for cost-effective carbon capture

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Most products shipped to the market are produced through industrial processes that often involve significant carbon emissions. To achieve our climate goals, it is therefore important that industry finds good solutions to remove or reduce environmentally harmful emissions as much as possible.

3.8.1 Interaction with industry

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For several years, CLIMIT has funded pilot testing at stationary facilities such as SINTEF’s carbon capture pilot project at Tiller in Trondheim, Technology Centre Mongstad (TCM) and at mobile testing facilities owned by various technology providers.

Below are examples of technology suppliers who have tested their own technology with the support of industry and CLIMIT:

• SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Carbon Capture) has, in response to industry, demonstrated its capture technology for numerous businesses using its mobile testing unit. These include Heidelberg Materials in Brevik, Hafslund Oslo Celsio, Preem AB in Sweden, Polchar in Poland, and Elkem and SMA Mineral in Mo Industrial Park. In previous phases, the amine-based solvent technology was tested and optimised in collaboration with NTNU and SINTEF. The technology has been further tested, developed and qualified at TCM for larger scale use.
• Hydrogen MemTech technology, which separates hydrogen from CO₂, has been tested under real-world conditions at Equinor’s Tjeldbergodden plant.
• Baker Hughe’s Compact Carbon Capture technology was developed in Norway trough a collaboration between Fjell Technology Group, Equinor and SINTEF – with the support of CLIMIT. The technology was previously tested at Equinor’s pilot facility in Porsgrunn.
• The Moving Bed Carbonate Looping technology from the Fjell Technology Group is being developed in collaboration with NTNU and SINTEF. This will be tested through a pilot project, and a mobile unit is under construction for testing under real-world conditions.
• Air Products in Kristiansand has tested two types of membranes for carbon capture at Heidelberg Materials in Brevik. They have also recently completed long-term testing at Returkraft in Kristiansand. SINTEF’s patented carbon capture technology CSAR (Continous Swing Absorption Reactor), will be piloted at BIR – Bergensområdets Interkommunale Renovasjonsselskap (Bergen-area Intermunicipal Renovation).

3.8.2 Avoiding costly mistakes

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Pilot facilities are small-scale processing facilities where technology providers can test out their technology on a smaller scale. For a technology to advance up the TRL (Technology Readiness Level) scale and succeed in commercial competition, the use of pilot facilities is a vital tool for fine-tuning the technology. Challenges can be identified and resolved on a smaller scale, reducing the risk of costly mistakes when scaling the technology up for fullscale facilities. This also allows for improvements and innovations that can make technology even more cost-effective over time.

This also applies to carbon capture, where both stationary and mobile pilot facilities are used to test important parameters for the performance and operation of a capture facility.

To meet climate goals, carbon capture technology is a key component for large parts of the processing and waste industries, nationally and internationally. For technology providers, it is essential to test technology under real-world industrial conditions. It is not possible to simulate or predict all the challenges that a technology will face in a real-world industrial context. As such, thorough testing at pilot facilities can avoid costly mistakes. 

3.8.3 Cost-effective and sustainable technology

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Testing at pilot facilities also provides valuable knowledge and learning, both for technology providers and technology users (industry). It is important to understand how the technology reacts under real-world conditions, especially concerning the rate of carbon capture, energy consumption, potential environmental emissions, and other operating conditions of the capture facility. This gives technology providers and their customers the opportunity to evaluate and optimise the performance of their capture facility. This ensures that the technologies are sufficiently robust for fullscale implementation on a given industrial waste gas/flue gas.

It is also important for the customer buying a CCS facility to remove their emissions to understand the knowledge and resources required to operate such a facility, and how its operation is affected by changes in the waste gas from the production process. Changes in the waste gas as a function of changes in the production process may affect the performance of the capture facility.

It is also important for the customer purchasing a CCS facility to understand the kind of knowledge and resources required to operate such a facility, and how its operation is affected by changes in the flue gas from the production process. Changes in the flue gas as a function of changes in the production process may affect the performance of the capture facility.

“This is why it is essential for industry to acquire knowledge about the technology they will use in their factories or waste facilities. This also applies to the knowledge required about the preparatory work and changes in infrastructure at and around the industrial facility,” says Svalestuen. She emphasises that the “Lesson Learned Report” from the Longship project shows that 34 percent of costs associated with carbon capture are related to infrastructure (“Utility and Support Systems”). An early phase of pilot testing is very useful for both technology providers and technology users. This is especially true for industries where carbon capture has not been tested before.

Elkem is a world-leading manufacturer of advanced silicon-based materials. Carbon capture is part of Elkem’s climate strategy to reach net zero emissions by 2050.

3.8.4 Successful pilot testing at Elkem, Rana

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At the Rana facility, the company has completed a carbon capture pilot project using capture technology provided by SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Carbon Capture). The pilot recorded high capture rates, up to 95%, demonstrating that the technology is practical and viable at a smelting plant.

The flue gas from silicon smelters has low and varying CO₂ concentrations. The fact that the pilot project successfully captured this CO₂ offers invaluable learning for further development. This CCS pilot project was in operation for around 3,000 hours from November 2022 to June 2023.

The results of the pilot will be used to continue the maturation of the technical and commercial aspects for the potential future implementation of CCS.

 “Reducing implementation costs and attracting competitive framework conditions are also key elements of this process,” Sæterstad says.

The project received funding from CLIMIT and was a collaboration between Elkem and Mo Industrial Park, SINTEF, Alcoa, Celsa, Ferroglobe, SMA Mineral, Norcem, Norfrakalk, Arctic Cluster Team and SLB Capturi.

3.9 Research has resulted in cost-effective carbon capture solutions

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Since 2005, the CLIMIT programme has been a key financial supporter of the development of cost effective carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.

The SOLVIT project, which started in 2008, laid the basis for environmentally-friendly solvent development, and the solutions from this are now used commercially. Through many projects, including SOLVIT, Aerosolve and the ACT/CEPT project Scope, SINTEF has developed world-leading expertise within solvent development and environmental impact.

 CLIMIT’s support has also facilitated bilateral support from CLIMIT and the US Department of Energy, which has led to further technological progress.

In June 2023, SINTEF marked 100,000 operating hours at its Tiller plant for researching carbon capture. This milestone work underscores SINTEF’s role as an important centre for expertise within carbon capture in particular, but also all areas of CCUS and CDR. SINTEF’s expertise within these areas has been important for Norway’s long-term focus on CCS as a key technology for achieving both national and global climate goals.

3.9.1 Tiller – A test arena for industrial solutions

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The pilot plant at Tiller was originally developed by SINTEF in collaboration with SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Clean Carbon). With a test plant that can capture up to 50 kg CO₂ per hour, SINTEF has tested and optimised carbon capture technologies under real-world conditions. The plant is able to take precise measurements for energy requirements, capture rate, degradation of solvents and environmental impact, which has provided researchers with valuable data for optimising large-scale plants.

3.9.2 Ground-breaking technology development

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SINTEF has played a key role in the development of a number of key capture technologies, such as:

• SLB Capturi’s technology, which is now used industrially, including at Heidelberg Materials’ cement factory in Brevik and in the planned capture project at Hafslund Celsio, both of which are part of the Longship project.
• CESAR1 technology, an open technology developed in collaboration with the Test Centre Mongstad (TCM) and international partners.
• NAS technology, developed by RTI International and tested at Tiller and TCM and later licensed to SLB.

SINTEF’s work at Tiller has contributed to the development of methods for monitoring and avoiding emissions from capture facilities and increased understanding for how operational variations and dynamics in flue gas can be best managed by the capture facility. These are solutions that are crucial for the cost-effective operation of capture facilities.

3.9.3 CLIMIT’s contribution to research and development

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With support from the CLIMIT programme, SINTEF has achieved ground-breaking results which has both contributed to Norway’s CCS ambitions and international development within the field. Their research and development have been crucial for taking CCS technologies from the laboratory to full-scale use.

As an expert within CCS, SINTEF is important for both technology suppliers and users. SINTEF’s test laboratories, which include analysis equipment with low detection levels, and stationary test pilots have been vitally important to the development of carbon capture technology.

The CLIMIT programme has shown how collaboration between research, industry and the authorities can accelerate the development of solutions that contribute to meeting the world’s climate challenges.

By funding research, pilot projects and technology development, CLIMIT has played a crucial role in promoting CCS as an instrument for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. CLIMIT’s contribution has not only accelerated the development of cost-effective solutions but also strengthened Norway’s position as a leading stakeholder within CCS globally.

The programme contributes to building bridges between research communities and industry.Support from CLIMIT has facilitated the testing of new technologies under real-world conditions at SINTEF’s pilot facility, TCM, and at industry facilities in Norway and abroad. This is an important link in ensuring the commercialisation of new solutions that can contribute to achieving national and international climate goals.

CLIMIT continues to be a central driving force for innovation within CCS and an important contributor in the development of solutions for a sustainable future.

Transport

4.1 CLIMIT has contributed to increased knowledge about transporting CO₂

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The funding received from the CLIMIT programme for research into CO₂ transportation has generated significant new knowledge. Industry actors and academic communities have gained a deeper understanding in areas such as corrosion, safety, and measurement, simulation and flow technology.

The transport projects have highlighted several issues that have created the need for further research and development. Although there has been steady growth and activity since 2007, there remains a significant need for further research in CO₂ transport, especially the need for more knowledge related to safety, risk reduction and cost-effectiveness.

4.1.1 Broad portfolio

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Since 2007, CLIMIT has supported 66 projects in the transport segment, totalling NOK 388 million.

4.1.2 Pipeline transport of CO₂

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The development in CO₂ transport started with the pipeline transport project led by GEXCON AS, which focused on the modelling of CO₂ leaks from pipelines and process plants. The largest project, led by DNV, received NOK 21 million in funding in 2016 and highlighted measures to improve safety and efficiency in CO₂ pipelines.

4.1.3 Developments in measurement and flow technology

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An important area within the CLIMIT portfolio, established in 2008, is measurement, simulation and flow technology, which is currently the largest area of expertise. Projects such as ‘Experimental investigation of selected thermophysical properties of CO₂ mixtures relevant to CCS’ were awarded NOK 26 million in funding in 2010. Further development of software such as OLGA and the development of measuring instruments, such as Cignus Instruments’ CO₂ mass flow meter, are some examples of high impact projects.

4.1.4 CO₂ transport by ship

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Ship transport of CO₂ received its first project funding from CLIMIT in 2011, but it was not until 2019 that scope increased within this area. Technology qualification and logistics solutions have been in focus, involving projects such as Stella Maris and CO₂ logistics ships, led by SINTEF Industry, among the most significant. The objective was achieved here by demonstrating that it is possible, using existing technology, to carry out the described large-scale transport and injection of CO₂ as covered by the Stella Maris project. The partners’ technical studies and risk assessments have not identified any technical obstacles to this.

4.1.5 Corrosion challenges in CO₂ transport

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Corrosion became a research area in 2012 and focuses on reactions from impurities in CO₂. The scope has increased since 2017, with projects such as ‘Kjeller Dense Phase CO₂ Corrosion’ investigating chemical reactions at high phase density. Corrosion and CO₂ quality play crucial roles in the entire value chain of capture, transport, and storage, and require further research.

4.1.6 Key points

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• Pipeline and ship transport of CO₂ provide new opportunities for cost-effective solutions.
• Knowledge about corrosion and chemical reactions is essential regarding specifications in CO₂ transport.
• Measurement, simulation and instrumentation technology are key to understanding conditions and challenges in the transport segment.
  

4.2 Transport of CO₂ from a CLIMIT perspective

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Pipeline and ship transport of CO₂ provide new opportunities for cost-effective solutions.

Knowledge about corrosion and chemical reactions is essential regarding specifications in CO₂ transport.

For CLIMIT, the transport of CO₂ has been a core part of the support and financing of Norwegian CCS projects. The background to this is that a safe and efficient infrastructure is necessary for connecting capture facilities to storage sites. From a CLIMIT perspective, transport of CO₂ encompasses everything from compression at capture facilities to well injection at the storage site.

In Norway, several initiatives for the transport of CO₂ have been adopted, most notably the Northern Lights project, which is a part of the broader CCS efforts of the Longship project. Northern Lights will transport liquid CO₂ from capture facilities in Norway and other European countries by ship and potentially pipelines to storage reservoirs under the seabed in the North Sea. Internationally, there are equivalent projects for establishing CO₂ transport infrastructure, both on-shore and off-shore, most of which are in the early phases.

CO₂ can be transported in a number of different methods:

• Pipelines: The most common method for continuous and large volumes of CO₂ over shorter distances or in areas with dense industrial infrastructure.
• Ship: Used for greater distances or transport between regions when ships provide better flexibility than pipelines.
• Road: Used for shorter distances, or when there are difficulties in establishing pipelines.
  

4.2.1 Technology development

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Many technologies for the transport of CO₂ have matured. For example, ship-based transport is approaching commercialisation, particularly in the Northern Lights project.

• Pipeline transport of CO₂: The technological development for pipelines in Norway is focussed on ensuring that CO₂ can be transported safely and reliably. Examples of technological developments are pressure control systems, material developments, corrosion resistance and gauges to ensure longevity and safety.
• Ship-based transport of CO₂: Norway has contributed to the development of ship technologies that can transport liquid CO₂ from capture sites to offshore storage sites. The technology here focuses on the design of low and high-pressure CO₂ storage tanks, something which requires specially-designed tanker ships. In addition, there has movement in the development of loading and unloading systems, as well as corrosion resistance, which is critical for ensuring rapid and safe transfer of CO₂ between ships and storage facilities.
• Digital technology and monitoring: In Norway, advanced monitoring systems have been developed that provide real-time information on the condition of pipelines and ships. Examples of this are sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) solutions along pipelines and in ships for information on pressure, temperature and leakage. Measurement, simulation and flow techniques are fundamental for digital technology and monitoring.

The technological challenges Norway is facing are related to risk and cost reduction, increased safety, scalability and harmonisation of technology. Further research and development is necessary to make transport more efficient, as well as for ensuring that CO₂ transport infrastructure can be upgraded in line with future needs. This also means cooperating with other countries to develop international solutions, especially since many countries will need to export their captured CO₂ to Norwegian storage sites.

All in all, Norway is well positioned to lead the technological development of CO₂ transport, particularly for pipelines and ship transport, and will likely continue to play a key role in global CCS projects in the future.

4.2.2 Regulations and frameworks

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The transport of CO₂ has been a major aspect of the global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. International regulations that affect CO₂ transport are largely grounded in agreements such as the Paris Agreement, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and other international environmental laws.

Key components of the international regulations:

• The London Protocol: This is an international agreement that regulates the dumping of waste into oceans. Norway has been a driver of amending this protocol so that it allows for carbon storage under the seabed, which is crucial for projects such as Northern Lights, which transports and stores carbon under the North Sea.
• EU directives: The EU has drawn up regulations for carbon transport and storage, including rules for pipelines and safe storage underground. Even though Norway is not a member of the EU, Norway is a part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and follows many of the same rules. The EU’s CCS Directive is therefore important for Norwegian regulation of such projects.
• International Maritime Organization (IMO): IMO is responsible for regulating CO₂ transport by ship. Norway is an active participant in the IMO, especially as CO₂ can be transported by ship to offshore storage sites.

One of the challenges from a Norwegian perspective is the need to harmonise national and international regulations to ensure that CO₂ can be transported effectively across national borders, whether this occurs by pipeline or ship. The national conditions for carbon storage are extremely favourable and can provide Norwegian stakeholders with a technological advantage.

4.2.3 Commercialisation

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Many projects are in an early phase of commercialisation, especially in Europe. Northern Lights, which is an international project, has garnered great interest from industrial stakeholders in several countries, who are now exploring the option of using Norwegian infrastructure for carbon storage.

Further work on the development of transport of CO₂ includes:

1. Optimisation of transport technologies: There is a need for further research into efficiency improvements of both pipeline and ship-based solutions. This includes improving compression technologies for CO₂ and developing solutions for safe transport.
2. Economic sustainability: To make CO₂ transport economically viable, costs related to carbon capture and transport must be reduced. CLIMIT will also focus on this in the future through support for research into new technologies and solutions.
3. International cooperation: Continued cooperation between countries and regions to build a common CCS infrastructure will be crucial. CLIMIT also has an important role here, particularly through its support for projects involving international partners.
4. Scaling: Future work must focus on scaling existing projects so that CO₂ transport can handle greater volumes in line with CCS technologies being implemented at greater scope and scale. One development may be that larger regional clusters mutually commit capture and transport.

CLIMIT plays an important role by supporting research and development within CO₂ transport, especially when it comes to reducing risk and developing cost-effective solutions. The programmes goals are to enable fullscale CCS infrastructure that can contribute to achieving national and international climate goals. CO₂ transport is one of the keys to this.  In future projects, focus will continue to put on building the necessary infrastructure to allow for storage of large volumes of CO₂ in a safe manner.

Internationally, CLIMIT contributes to promoting cooperation through knowledge dissemination and supporting innovation across national borders.

4.3 Challenges and solutions to corrosion during the transport of CO₂

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Corrosion is one of the greatest technological challenges relating to transport in carbon capture and storage (CCS) systems. Failure to properly tackle these challenges could lead to pipelines bursting, leakages and potential environmental catastrophes. CLIMIT supports a range of projects aimed at finding good solutions to challenges related to corrosion.

Pipeline transport of CO₂ requires thorough analysis of the chemical reactions that can arise when CO₂, in combination with impurities such as water, sulphur dioxide (SO₂), hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) and oxygen (O₂), reacts with metals. This article examines the issues, status and further work related to corrosion in CO₂ transport, with examples of relevant projects that have been financed by CLIMIT.

4.3.1 Issues

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The effect of water and impurities on corrosion
Even small quantities of water can, when combined with CO₂, lead to the creation of carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), which is extremely corrosive for the majority of metals. As CO₂ flows through pipelines, impurities like sulphur dioxide (SO₂), hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) and oxygen (O₂) exacerbate the corrosion process, in particular at high pressures and temperatures such as those typical of transporting supercritical materials.

Choice of materials for pipes and equipment
The most common materials that are used in pipelines, such as carbon steel, can be vulnerable to corrosion, especially under difficult conditions involving impurities. Alternative materials such as stainless steel and specialised alloys can provide better durability, but they are often far more expensive. The choice of materials must therefore find a balance between cost-effectiveness and durability against corrosion.

Corrosion protection
Different corrosion protection technologies such as coatings, inhibitors and anodal protection have been tested for CO₂ transport. Each solution comes with its own challenges related to durability, reliability and cost for large-scale operations.

Monitoring and inspection
Early detection of corrosion is crucial for preventing major damage or leakages in pipelines. Traditional inspection methods must be updated to include the specific challenges that are associated with CO₂ transport, including faster rates of corrosion in supercritical CO₂ flows.

4.3.2 Status of CLIMIT projects

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Many CLIMIT-funded projects have worked to improve understanding of corrosion mechanisms in CO₂ transport and developed solutions for tackling challenges:

4.3.3 Impurity Reactions in Dense Phase CO₂ Corrosion and Solid Formation

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This project was led by IFE and examined how impurities in dense phase CO₂ can lead to corrosion and the formation of solid formations in pipelines used for carbon capture and storage (CCS). When CO₂ is captured from industrial processes, it often contains impurities such as water, sulphur oxide (SO_X), nitrogen oxide (NO_X) and other compounds that can react under high pressure and specific temperature conditions in dense phase CO₂. Such reactions can lead to challenges relating to safety and reliability of the CO₂ transport infrastructure.

This project is extremely relevant for large-scale CO₂ transport projects, where safe and efficient transport of dense phase CO₂ is crucial for success. Understanding of how impurities affect corrosion and solid formations will contribute to better design and operation of CO₂ infrastructure, something which is essential for ensuring long-term stability and reducing costs. The findings of the project will contribute to strengthening Norway’s technological leadership within CCS.

4.3.4 Corrosion and Cross Chemical Reactions in Pipelines Transporting CO₂ with Impurities

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This project led by IFE and aimed to understand and solve challenges related to corrosion and chemical reactions in pipelines transporting CO2 with impurities. When CO₂ is captured from industrial processes for carbon capture and storage (CCS), it can contain impurities such as water, sulphur oxide (SO_X), nitrogen oxide (NO_X) and other gases. These impurities can lead to corrosion and unintended chemical reactions which can weaken pipelines.

This project is especially relevant for largescale CCS initiatives such as Northern Lights and Longship, where safe and efficient transport of CO₂ through pipelines is critical for succeeding in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The projects results will contribute to improved design and operation of future CO₂ transport infrastructure.

4.3.5 Materials Selection for CO₂ Transport and Injection wells – O₂ limits

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This project The project was led by IFE and aimed to research and optimise material selection for safe and efficient transport and injection of CO₂ in carbon capture and storage (CCS) projects. When CO₂ is transported between pipelines and injected into underground storage reservoirs, challenges can arise related to corrosion, material degradation and mechanical wear and tear, particularly if the CO₂ stream contains impurities. The correct material selection is crucial for ensuring long-term operation and minimising the risk of leakages and damage.

The project is extremely relevant for Norwegian CCS initiatives, where reliable transport and injection of CO₂ is central to their success. By identifying materials that can withstand corrosion and other stressors over time, the project will contribute to ensuring the safe and efficient operation of CO₂ infrastructure. This will support Norway’s position as a leader within CCS technology, while also ensuring sustainable carbon storage solutions.

4.3.6 Kjeller Dense Phase CO₂ Corrosion III (KDC-III)

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This research project was led by IFE and examined corrosion in pipelines that transport dense phase CO₂, especially in the context of carbon capture and storage (CCS). Transporting dense phase CO₂ means that the gas is kept at high pressure, where it is a supercritical fluid. Under such conditions, the presence of impurities such as water, sulphur dioxide (SO_X) and nitrogen oxide (NO_X) can lead to serious corrosion, which poses a risk to the safety and integrity of pipelines and other infrastructure.

KDC-III is an important part of Norway’s efforts in developing safe and reliable solutions for the transport of CO₂ in large-scale CCS projects. The project will provide better insight into how to tackle the technological challenges of corrosion, which will contribute to the long-term and cost-effective operation of CO₂ transport infrastructure in Norway and abroad.

4.3.7 H₂S Challenges in CO₂ Pipelines

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This project was headed up by DNV and focuses on challenges related to the presence of hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) in CO₂ pipelines. When CO₂ is captured from industrial sources for carbon capture and storage (CCS), it can contain impurities such as H2S, which can lead to major corrosion and safety risks in pipelines that transport CO₂.

This project is relevant for large-scale CCS projects, where CO₂ transport through pipelines is crucial. Dealing with impurities such as H₂S is critical ensuring the safety and reliability of the CO₂ transport chain, the projects findings will contribute to solving technological challenges related to this. This will contribute to strengthening Norway’s role as a leading stakeholder within CCS technology.

4.3.8 Kjeller Dense Phase CO₂ Corrosion Project IV (KDC-IV)

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This research project is led by IFE and aims to understand and address corrosion-related challenges that arise when CO₂ is transported in dense phase in pipelines. Dense phase refers to the state in which CO₂ is under high pressure and is a supercritical fluid, which is common for transport in carbon capture and storage (CCS) projects. When CO₂ contains impurities such as water, sulphur oxides (SO_X) and nitrogen oxide (NO_X), it can lead to increased risks of corrosion in pipelines.

The KDC-IV project is particularly relevant for Norwegian CCS projects, where CO₂ is transported over long distances and stored under the seabed. Understanding the risk of corrosion and uncovering effective materials and design solutions are crucial for ensuring long-term, safe and reliable operation of CO₂ transport infrastructure.

4.3.9 Characterization and Prediction of the CO₂ Effect on Polymeric Materials within the CO₂ Transport Chain

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This project is led by SINTEF and examines how CO₂ affects polymeric materials that are used in the CO₂ transport chain. This is especially relevant for CCS, where polymeric materials are used in different components such as sealants, packing, coating and pipe components. These materials can be affected by exposure to CO₂, especially when CO₂ is mixed with impurities from capture processes.

The project is important for ensuring the long-term functionality and safety of the CO₂ transport chain, especially when it comes to the choice of materials in critical components used in pipelines and storage facilities in CCS systems such as Longship and Northern Lights.

4.3.10 Further work

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1. Development of more corrosion-resistant materials
   There is a need for further research into alloys that are both durable against corrosion and cost-effective for large-scale use. This includes alternative steel alloys and new alloys that can prevent corrosion under extreme conditions.
2. Corrosion monitoring systems
   Development of real-time monitoring systems that can detect corrosion at an early phase is vital for preventing leakages. This will require new sensor and inspection technologies that can detect small changes in the condition of the material before significant damage occurs.
3. Process Control Optimisation
   Further research into how CO₂ flows can be regulated to minimise corrosion, for example by controlling pressure and temperature to avoid phase transitions that can accelerate corrosion, will be vital for ensure safe and cost-effective transport systems.
4. CO₂ specification
   Further research into the impact of impurities in CO₂ flows under different conditions is important for defining a clear CO₂ specification through parts and the whole of the value chain.

4.3.11 Conclusion

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Corrosion is a central challenge for the transport of CO₂ in CCS projects. A range of projects have made important inroads into the understanding of corrosion mechanisms, however further work is necessary to develop robust and financially sustainable solutions. Material development, corrosion monitoring and process control will be crucial areas for future research and innovation.

4.4 Measurement, simulation and fluid dynamics in CO₂ transport

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Efficient transport of CO₂ in carbon capture and storage (CCS) requires precise measurement and simulation methods to ensure safety and stability. CO₂ in a supercritical condition has specific flow qualities, and small variations in pressure or temperature can lead to phase transitions that affect both the safety and efficiency of the transportation. Understanding and simulating these phenomena is crucial for ensuring the best possible operation of pipelines and ship transport. This article focuses on important issues within measurement and simulation of CO₂ flow, with examples from CLIMIT-funded projects.

4.4.1 Issues

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1. Flow dynamics and phase transitions
   CO₂ acts very differently to other industrial gases when it is transported in a supercritical state. Small changes in pressure or temperature can lead to phase transitions from supercritical fluid to gaseous or solid phases, which can affect pipe integrity or create blockages.
2. The effect of impurities on flow
   Impurities such as sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen (N₂) and water can change the density, viscosity and flow qualities of CO₂. Understanding how impurities affect the flow of CO₂ is necessary for designing pipelines that can transport mixtures of CO₂ in a safe manner.
3. Measurement and monitoring
   Being able to monitor pressure, temperature and flow qualities in real-time is crucial for allowing transport to occur safely and efficiently. Traditional measurement technologies must be updated to handle the unique qualities of CO₂, especially under dynamic conditions with varying temperatures and pressures.
4. Numeric simulation
   Advanced simulation tools are necessary for modelling how CO₂ acts under different transport conditions. Simulations must be able to predict how CO₂ will flow through pipelines, and how pressure and temperature will affect the stability of the stream.

4.4.2 Status of CLIMIT projects

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Many CLIMIT projects have contributed to the development of measurement and simulation tools for CO₂ transport:

4.4.3 Solid CO₂ in Storage and Transportation

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This project was led by Petrell and aimed at developing simulation tools that can predict the formation of solid CO₂ during transport and storage. This is important for handling safety challenges and ensuring the efficient flow of CO₂ in processes involving both pure CO₂ and CO₂ mixtures.

SolidCO2Sim will contribute to better safety and efficiency in CO₂ transport, something which is crucial for the implementation of carbon capture and storage (CCS) at global scale.

4.4.4 CO₂ Flow Assurance for Cost-effective Transport

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This project was led by Equinor and aimed at developing and validating tools that can improve safety and reduce the costs of transporting CO₂ in carbon capture and storage (CCS). The project was initiated to meet the need for more precise CO₂ transport simulation models, which often require large safety margins due to the uncertainty of current tools and has raised the cost of many CCS projects.

The project has resulted in high-quality data that has been used to improve flow tools.

4.4.5 CO₂ OLGA Verification and Improvement Project

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This project was led by SPT Group Norway AS and aimed at improving the OLGA simulator, a key tool for multi-phase simulation of flows in pipelines with a specific focus on CO₂ transport. The aim of the project is to adapt the OLGA simulator to be able to handle the unique challenges of transporting CO₂, especially in relation to carbon capture and storage (CCS).

Through this project, OLGA will be able to be just an important a tool for CO₂ transport as it already is for the oil and gas industry and contribute to the development of a global CO₂ transport system.

4.4.6 OLGA Robust, Enhanced and Accurate CO₂ Action (CO₂ REACH)

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This project was led by Schlumberger Information Solution AS and focussed on improving the OLGA simulator, an important tool for modelling multi-phase flows in pipelines. The project aims to make CO₂ transport more robust and precise for the safe and efficient implementation of carbon capture and storage (CCS).

Through improvement of numerical solutions, thermodynamic and hydraulic models, OLGA will fulfil the requirements of future CCS projects and ensure long-term technical solutions for CCS.

4.4.7 OLGA CO₂ TIDE (Transport and Integrated Domain Extensions)

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OLGA CO₂ TIDE is led by Schlumberger Information Solution AS and aims to further develop the OLGA simulator for CO₂ transport in connection with carbon capture and storage (CCS). The aim is to address many technical challenges by expanding the functionality of OLGA so that it can handle more complex multi-phase transport of CO₂ under different conditions.

Through the project, the models of the OLGA simulator have been upgraded and validated by testing experimental data from laboratories and field measurements, which will contribute to future CCS solutions.

4.4.8 CO₂Flow

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This project is led by Ledaflow Technologies DA and aims to further develop the LedaFlow simulation tool to make it more robust and accurate in modelling multi-phase streams related to the transport and injection of CO₂. This is crucial for carbon capture and storage (CCS), which is a central technology for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Through this work, the CO₂Flow project aims to contribute to a safer and more efficient CCS value chain and thus strengthen Norway’s position in climate change technology and achieve national climate goals.

4.4.9 Design, construction and installation of prototype Cignus mass flow meter for CO₂ testing at Equinor P-Lab

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This project was led by Cignus Instruments AS and focussed primarily on developing more accurate and efficient solutions for mass CO₂ flow measurements for future large-scale carbon capture and storage (CCS) facilities.

Cignus’ mass flow meter was tested at the Equinor P-Lab, where the results show that the pressure drop of the meter was 1/10th of that in traditional Coriolis meters of an equivalent capacity, while keeping a comparable level of accuracy. The road ahead includes scaling up to large-scale pilot facilities such as Northern Lights.

4.4.10 UpLIFT New Solver Phase II – CO₂Speed

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This project is led by LedaFlow Technologies DA and focusses on further developing LedaFlow for increased calculation speeds for implementing algorithms to handle phase transitions for pure and mixed CO₂ flows. An improved description and accuracy will define phase transitions and allow for greater time improvements. The results are expected to show improved simulation tools that can be used to design safer and more efficient CO₂ transport systems, as well as contribute to the development of sustainable solutions by facilitating the secure transport and storage of CO₂.

UpLIFT New Solver Phase II – CO₂Speed represents and important step in understanding and improve CO₂ transport technologies. Through advanced simulation methods and experimental approaches, the project has the potential to contribute to a more sustainable future by handling greenhouse gas emissions in an efficient manner.

4.4.11 IntoCloud

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The IntoCloud project is led by SINTEF Energi and aims to fill the lacking data and knowledge basis for CO₂ leakage at cold temperatures. This will be done through testing tank leakages, dry ice formation in pipes and dispersion tests for starting conditions that have not been studied before. Leakage rates, the effect of dry ice dynamics and dry ice particle size will be measured. These data will be used to develop and validate precise physics models of CO₂ leakages, dry ice formation in pipes and CO₂ dispersion to surrounding areas. Furthermore, the data will be used to test commercial tools and uncover potential deficiencies. This project will provide the necessary basis for developing accurate calculation tools for the design and risk analysis of CCS facilities.

IntoCloud will facilitate improved safety analyses of CCS infrastructure by generating experimental data and developing a thorough physics-based understanding of CO₂ leakages and dispersion to surrounding areas as well as increase knowledge and rigorous measurements of CO₂ leakages and the effect of dry ice will help to secure the CCS industry and can thus lead to a safer and more rapid development of CCS internationally.

4.4.12 Phenomenological Study of Unstable Two-Phase CO₂ Flow in a Pipeline System

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This project is led by NTNU and aims to establish a thorough understanding of instability in two-phase CO₂ flows in pipeline systems. The two-phase flow conditions can result in highly unstable flows that can pose a risk to the integrity of injection wells and the rest of the transport system. This project focuses on establishing a fundamental understanding of the occurrence of two-phase flow instabilities and transient phenomena in CO₂ pipeline systems.

The project represents an important step forward in improving CO₂ transport technologies. Through thorough research on two-phase flows, it will be possible to develop safer and more efficient solutions for carbon capture and storage, which essential for combating climate change.

4.4.13 Monitoring and Control of Networks for CCS

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This project is led by SINTEF Energi, where studies were carried out of monitoring and control systems for carbon capture and storage (CCS) networks. It is expected that CCS clusters will consist of various CO₂ sources with great variation in flow speeds, operational conditions and impurities. This scenario poses a challenge to transport companies and prevents the reliable flow of CO₂ to permanent storage sites. The aim is to improve the efficiency and safety of the transport and storage of CO2 by implementing advanced technologies for monitoring and control.

The project represents an important step in improving CCS technologies. This will not just contribute to increased safety, but also to more cost-effective and sustainable approaches to large-scale CCS from industrial sources.

4.4.14 Further work

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1. Improving measurement techniques: Development of more precise and reliable sensors for monitoring CO₂ levels and flow qualities in real-time.
2. Simulation models: Further development of numeric models to better predict the flow and transport of CO₂ under different conditions, including variations in pressure and temperature.
3. Experimental studies: Carrying out laboratory and field studies for validating simulation results and understanding the dynamics of CO₂ transportation better.
4. Regulatory frameworks: Cooperating with authorities to develop standards and guidelines that support safe and efficient CO₂ transportation.

4.4.15 Conclusion

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Measurement, simulation and flow techniques play a vital role in the development of efficient CO₂ transport solutions. Through continuous research and development, we can improve the technologies necessary for handling greenhouse gas emissions. This will not just contribute to reducing environmental impacts, but also promote sustainable solutions that are vital for future energy systems.

4.5 Technologies for pipe and ship transport of CO₂

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Transport of CO₂ from capture facilities to storage sites is a critical component of carbon capture and storage (CCS). With large quantities of CO2 needing to be transported over long distances, both pipeline and ship transport are essential technologies for facilitating efficient CCS infrastructure. This is the theme of a number of projects supported by CLIMIT.

Pipelines are generally preferred for transport over land and short distances offshore while ship-based transport provides greater flexibility over longer distances, especially for transport between countries and over national borders. The choice of transport technology depends on a number of factors, including costs, volume, safety and technical requirements. This article examines the challenges, status and further development of pipeline and ship transport for CCS, with particular focus on CLIMIT-funded projects.

In the United States, CO2 has been transported by pipeline since the 1970s for use in enhanced oil recovery, which has shown that pipeline transport is safe and stable over longer distances. At the same time, Norwegian companies such as Yara transported liquid CO₂ by ship to countries around the North Sea.

For the transport of CO₂, the interaction between purity requirements, transport volume and distance are a major precondition. Pollutants in CO₂ from capture facilities related to industry and energy production can affect both operational safety and finances, making more research into safety and regulations necessary.

4.5.1 Issues

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Choice of technology: Pipelines vs. ship-based transport
Pipelines are preferred for continuous transportation of CO₂ from capture facilities to storage sites. They provide an effective solution for large volumes and short-to-medium distances, especially over land. Offshore pipelines require extensive infrastructure and precise monitoring to ensure the safe transport of supercritical CO₂. The construction of pipelines can, however, be expensive, especially in challenging geographic areas, such as deep sea or fjord areas.

Ship transport provides a more flexible solution for CO₂ transport over long distances, especially when capture facilities are far from storage sites, or when transport needs to take place between countries. Ships make it possible to collect CO₂ from many facilities and transport it to a common storage site. One of the technical challenges of ship transport is the compression and cooling of CO₂ to ensure that it can be transported in liquid form, which requires advanced cooling systems and specialised storage tanks. The logistics of loading and unloading of CO₂ is also complex, particularly when it comes to handling large volumes in a cost-effective manner.

Pipelines are the most cost-effective method for the transport of large amounts of CO₂ over long distances, especially when it comes to medium-to-high volumes.

Choice of materials and safety
Pipelines carrying CO₂ must be able to withstand extreme conditions, including corrosion caused by impurities in the CO₂ flow such as water, SO₂ and H₂S. The choice of materials such as carbon steel, stainless steel or special alloys is crucial for preventing corrosion and cracks that might result in a leakage. There is also a need for comprehensive safety monitoring to detect small leakages or fatigue before they lead to large incidents.

Experience with pipeline transport for EOR in the United States is not necessarily transferable to Norwegian circumstances, especially since CO₂ from industrial capture facilities can contain impurities that can lead to operational disruptions and potential damage to pipelines. Ongoing research and standardisation are crucial for understanding the thermophysical properties of CO₂.

Regulation and legal framework
The international transport of CO₂, especially by ship, requires a clear legal framework that regulates cross-border transport. There must be concordance between national laws, international conventions (such as MARPOL) and other relevant agreements to ensure that the transportation of CO₂ can take place safely and without legal hindrances. Harmonisation of rules and standards is also important for ensuring equal conditions for stakeholders operating in different countries.

Costs and economics
Cost-effectiveness are an important factor for the choice of transport solution. Pipelines require major investment in infrastructure, but provide lower operating costs for the continuous transportation of large volumes of CO₂. Ship-based transport requires less investment in infrastructure, but the operating costs can be higher, especially when handling CO₂ at low temperatures and under compression for transport. The economic aspect of each CCS project must factor in the distance between capture and storage facility, CO₂ volume and available alternatives.

4.5.2 Status of CLIMIT projects

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Many CLIMIT-funded projects have contributed to the development of both pipeline and ship-based transport solutions for CO₂. Here are some of the most relevant projects:

4.5.3 CO₂ Logistic by Ship IV (CO₂los IV)

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CO₂los IV is led by Brevik Engineering AS and focuses on developing improved logistics solutions for the transport of CO₂ by ship. This project builds further on previous initiatives, CO₂los II (2018-2020) and CO₂los III (2021-2023), and aims to reduce costs and uncertainty related to the transport of CO₂. This is crucial for promoting carbon capture and storage (CCS) as an effective method for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

CO₂los IV represents an important step in optimising the transport of CO₂ by ship and has the potential to contribute to a more sustainable future by reducing costs and improving CCS safety.

4.5.4 Stella Maris

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This project was led by Altera Infrastructure and focuses on developing effective solutions for the transport, storage and injection of CO₂ in offshore storage formations. It has aimed to verify feasible technical solutions and a cost estimate for large-scale shuttle transport, offshore loading, temporary storage and continuous injection of liquid CO₂ for permanent storage.

The project hoped to identify cost-effective and technically feasible solutions for large-scale CCS.

Stella Maris represents an important step in developing effective and sustainable CCS. The project has shown that it is possible to implement cost-effective methods for the transport and injection of CO₂.

4.5.5 Technology Qualification of LP-CO₂ Ship Transportation

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This project was led by DNV AS and aimed to qualify technologies for low-pressure CO₂ transport by ship. The purpose was to prove the technical feasibility of a low-pressure CO₂ transport ship concept, reduce risks and remove uncertainty related to their design, construction and operation, as described in DNV-RP-A203. This is an important part of the ongoing development of carbon capture and storage (CCS) that is vital for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change.

The project represents a major step forward in the development of effective solutions for ship-based CO₂ transport Through qualification of low-pressure technology, it is possible to facilitate a more sustainable and cost-effective CCS approach.

4.5.6 PCO₂ Technology Review and Design Verification (PCO₂ DEMO)

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PCO₂ DEMO was led by Knutsen NYK Carbon Carriers AS and was a comprehensive effort to develop and qualify technology for the transport of liquid CO₂ under high pressure. This project is critical for supporting carbon capture and storage (CCS) by improving the methods for the safe and efficient transport of CO₂, which is vital for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

PCO₂ DEMO represents a step forward in the development of safe and efficient solutions for CO₂ transportation. Through qualification of EP technology and experimental testing, the project contributes to promoting CCS technologies that are necessary for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving global climate goals.

4.5.7 CO₂FFER – Data and models to optimise maritime CO₂ transport and offshore injection

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This project is led by SINTEF Energi and aimed at developing key models and experimental data to support the optimisation of CO₂ transport by ship and offshore injection.  This is crucial for realising large-scale carbon capture and storage (CCS) projects, which is a part of Norway’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The CO₂FFER project, which is running from 2023 to 2026, will contribute to realising concepts for safe and cost-effective maritime CCS, which will support the expansion of projects such as Longship and other future CCS initiatives.

4.5.8 Further work

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1. Infrastructure scaling
   To meet the needs of future CCS projects to transport CO₂, pipeline infrastructure, both on and offshore, must be expanded considerably. There will be a need for further investment in technologies that improve cost-effectiveness, including new materials and advanced safety systems that can detect and prevent leakages in real-time.
2. Development of ship-based transport
   Ship-based transport of CO₂ is in its early phases, and further research is necessary to scale up this technology for commercial use. This includes the further development of cooling technologies related to CO₂, optimisation of ship design and logistics around the transport of large amounts of CO₂ in a safe and cost-effective manner. It will also be important to further develop technologies that ensure that CO₂ can be handled safely during loading and unloading and that there is sufficient maritime infrastructure to handle large volumes of liquid CO₂.
3. Integration of pipeline and ship transportation
   Future projects will require seamless integration between pipelines and ship transportation. This involves developing and establishing CO₂ transport nodes, where ships can deliver CO₂ to central storage facilities, and where pipelines takeover the transport to storage sites. This can contribute to making CO₂ transportation more flexible and economical, while also allowing for a more distributed CCS infrastructure.
4. Safety and environmental considerations
   Going forward, work on improving safety and environmental protections will be carried out, especially with regards to ship-based transport. The development of better safety systems to prevent and manage leakages to the ocean, as well as technologies that minimise the environmental impact of any incidents, will be vital for winning broad international acceptance of maritime CO₂ transport.

4.5.9 Conclusion

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Pipeline and ship-based transport of CO₂ plays a vital role in realising large-scale CCS projects. Pipelines are ideal for transport over short-to-medium distances, while ship-based transport provides flexibility for longer distances and between storage sites in different countries. Developments in both pipeline and ship-based transport has come a long way, particularly thanks to CLIMIT-funded projects such as Northern Lights. However, there is still a need for further development of technology, infrastructure and safety systems.

Storage

5.1 The CLIMIT program – Geological CO₂ storage

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CLIMIT is at the forefront of advancing CO₂ storage technologies in Norway. As a key initiative focused on safe and efficient geological storage, CLIMIT supports a diverse portfolio of research and development projects. Understanding the complexities of subsurface geology is crucial to prevent leaks and maximize storage capacity, ensuring the long-term success of CCS. CLIMIT actively invests in building expertise and knowledge to address these challenges. To provide a clearer picture of these efforts, we have categorized the storage projects as follows:

5.1.1 Reservoir and caprock

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• Characterization of reservoirs: Projects that examine various geological formations to assess their suitability for CO₂ storage. This includes studies of reservoir porosity, permeability, capacity, and related properties. For example, different types of sandstone are investigated to determine how much CO₂ they can store and how easily CO₂ can flow through the rock. In addition, the geomechanical properties of the formation are analyzed to evaluate the risk of deformation or fracturing during CO₂ injection.
• Caprock integrity: Research on caprock is crucial to ensure it remains impermeable and prevents CO₂ leakage. This involves studying the properties of the caprock and the mechanisms that may affect its integrity over time. There are limited sample data from CCS-relevant caprocks, and increasing our knowledge in this area is important. This includes understanding mechanical properties, mineralogy, and behavior under high pressure and temperature conditions.
• Optimization of injection strategies: Studies on how best to inject CO₂ into the reservoir to maximize storage capacity and minimize the risk of leakage. This includes examining various injection rates and pressures, as well as optimizing the placement of injection wells to ensure an even distribution of CO₂ throughout the reservoir.
• Pressure management: The development of methods to monitor and control reservoir pressure during and after CO₂ injection. Excessive pressure can cause fracturing or induced seismicity, while too low a pressure can reduce storage capacity. CLIMIT therefore supports the development of advanced sensor systems and models for monitoring and controlling reservoir pressure.

5.1.2 Monitoring and simulation

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• Development of monitoring technology: Projects that develop and test technology for monitoring CO₂ storage sites, such as seismic methods, gravimetry, and electromagnetic techniques. Seismic methods use sound waves to map the distribution of CO₂ in the reservoir, gravimetry measures changes in the gravitational field caused by CO₂ injection, and electromagnetic methods utilize changes in the reservoir’s electrical conductivity.
• Simulation of CO₂ migration: The use of advanced computational models enables simulation of CO₂ dispersal within the reservoir and the prediction of its long-term subsurface behavior. This approach supports comprehensive risk assessment and the optimization of storage strategies. The models integrate a range of parameters, including reservoir properties, injection rates, pressure conditions, and geochemical interactions with CO₂, aqueous fluids, and the host rock.
• Verification of storage: The development of methods to ensure that CO₂ remains permanently sequestered within the reservoir is a critical aspect of secure storage. Such approaches may involve integrating various monitoring techniques, including seismic surveys and geochemical analyses, to ensure that CO₂ does not migrate out of the storage formation.

5.1.3 CCS wells

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• Well integrity: Research on materials and designs for CO₂ injection wells aims to ensure long-term integrity and prevent leakage. This includes developing cement and casings capable of withstanding corrosive conditions induced by CO₂, as well as methods for continuous monitoring of well conditions over extended periods.
• Drilling and completion: Optimizing drilling and completion processes for CO₂ injection wells involves the development of drilling techniques that minimize leakage and environmental contamination risks, as well as the refinement of equipment design and installation procedures.
• Development of well technologies: Projects focused on advancing CO₂ injection technologies, such as next-generation wellheads and injection valves, seek to enable more precise control over injection rates and pressures, as well as real-time monitoring of well conditions.

5.1.4 Technological development of geological storage

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CLIMIT supports research and technology development efforts aimed at improving every stage of the geological CO₂ storage process.

• Reservoir characterization: Develop more advanced methods to map and understand the properties of reservoirs, for example by using geophysical techniques and machine learning.
• Well technology: Improve the design and construction of wells for CO₂ injection, to ensure long-term integrity and minimize the risk of leaks.
• Injection technology: Optimize injection strategies and pressure management to maximize storage capacity and minimize the risk of induced seismicity.
• Monitoring technology: Develop more sensitive and cost-effective sensors and monitoring methods to detect potential leaks early.

5.1.5 Regulations and framework for CO₂ storage

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Storing CO₂ is subject to extensive national and international regulations. These measures are essential for ensuring safe, environmentally responsible storage and for facilitating the development and implementation of CCS technology.

Key components in the international regulatory framework

• The London Convention Protocol: This international agreement governs the dumping of waste at sea and has been adapted to permit the storage of CO₂ beneath the seabed. Norway has played a pivotal role in these adaptations, which are critical for projects such as Longship.

• The OSPAR Convention: This convention protects the marine environment of the Northeast Atlantic and includes regulations for storing CO₂ in geological formations beneath the seabed. Norway actively participates in OSPAR collaboration.
• EU directives: The EU has a directive on CO₂ storage that sets requirements for safety and environmental protection. Although Norway is not an EU member, the directive is implemented in Norwegian law through the EEA Agreement.

• The UNFCCC: This convention provides the framework for international climate policy and recognizes CCS as an important measure for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

National regulations

In Norway, CO₂ storage is regulated by a range of laws and regulations, including:

• The Pollution Control Act: Sets general requirements for environmental protection and pollution prevention.
• The Planning and Building Act: Governs land use and requires environmental impact assessments for CO₂ storage facilities.
• The Petroleum Act: Authorizes the granting of permits for CO₂ storage in geological formations.
• The CO₂ Storage Regulations: Establish specific safety and environmental requirements for CO₂ storage, including monitoring and reporting obligations.
• The Marine Resources Act and the Seabed Minerals Act: Regulate activities on the continental shelf, including CO₂ storage.

5.1.6 CLIMIT’s perspective on the commercialization of CO₂ storage

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Several CO₂ storage projects are in the early stages of commercialization, especially in Europe. Northern Lights, as part of the Longship project, has garnered significant international interest. Industrial players in Europe are considering the use of Norwegian infrastructure for CO₂ storage, which may help establish a commercial market for CO₂ storage services. Once Longship becomes operational, it will clarify which technological areas and projects the CLIMIT program should prioritize and invest in. It will also provide valuable guidance to industry and academia on which challenges require further research and innovative solutions.

Further work on the commercialization of CO₂ storage

• Optimization of storage technologies: There is a need for additional research to improve the efficiency of every stage in the storage process. This includes enhancing injection technology, optimizing well design, and developing safe, effective methods for monitoring stored CO₂.
• Economic sustainability: To make CO₂ storage economically viable, storage costs must be reduced. CLIMIT will continue to focus on this by supporting research into new technologies and solutions.
• International collaboration: Ongoing cooperation among countries and regions to build a shared infrastructure for CO₂ transport and storage is essential. CLIMIT plays a key role, particularly through its support for projects that connect international partners.
• Scaling: Future efforts must emphasize scaling up existing projects so that CO₂ storage can handle larger volumes as CCS technologies are more widely implemented.

CLIMIT plays a vital role by supporting research and development in CO₂ storage, particularly in risk reduction and the development of cost-effective solutions. The program’s goal is to enable a full-scale CCS infrastructure that can help achieve national and international climate targets, with CO₂ storage serving as a key component. Future projects will continue to focus on building the necessary infrastructure to safely and efficiently store large volumes of CO₂.

On the international stage, CLIMIT promotes collaboration through knowledge exchange and support for innovation across borders.

5.2 CLIMIT program category – Reservoir and caprock

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For effective and secure CO₂ storage, it is critical to understand and address challenges related to the reservoir and caprock. These geological formations are essential for ensuring permanent CO₂ sequestration and preventing leakage. CLIMIT supports research addressing these challenges within the “Reservoir and caprock” program category.

5.2.1 Challenges

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• Reservoir characterization: Accurate characterization of reservoir properties, such as porosity, permeability, and storage capacity, is crucial for predicting CO₂ migration and optimizing injection strategies. Uncertainty in reservoir characterization can lead to inefficient storage or increased leakage risk.

• Caprock integrity: The caprock must remain sufficiently impermeable to prevent CO₂ leakage over geological timescales. Faults, fractures, and other geological structures may compromise caprock integrity and increase leakage risk.

• Geochemical reactions: Interactions between CO₂, formation water, and rock can alter reservoir properties and potentially affect storage security. For example, the mineralization of CO₂ can reduce reservoir porosity and permeability over time.

• Induced seismicity: CO₂ injection can cause small seismic events (induced seismicity). Although these are usually too weak to cause surface damage, they may potentially affect caprock integrity and increase the risk of leakage.

5.2.2 The status on reservoir and caprock research

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Several CLIMIT-funded projects have sought to improve the understanding of reservoir and caprock issues in CO₂ storage, developing solutions to address these challenges:

5.2.2.1 A frozen frontier – Exploring CO₂ storage in Longyearbyen

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The Longyearbyen projects, led by UNIS (The University Centre in Svalbard), represent a notable research effort to explore and develop technologies for CO₂ storage in Arctic regions. Since 2007, these projects have pioneered CO₂ storage research with the ambitious goal of creating a local solution to reduce emissions from Longyearbyen’s coal-fired power plant, while advancing fundamental research and methods with global implications. Although the project did not result in large-scale storage in Svalbard, it provided valuable research and competence building.

Visionary researchers recognized that Longyearbyen, characterized by high per-capita CO₂ emissions, could lead a climate-friendly innovation. With CLIMIT support and collaboration with industrial partners, including Store Norske, Statoil, and several international oil companies, extensive investigations and tests were conducted. These involved top Norwegian research institutions—such as the University of Oslo, NTNU, SINTEF, and various FME centers—resulting in strong foundations in CO₂ storage research and valuable insights that inform subsequent projects.

By drilling wells, conducting geophysical measurements, and performing pressure and fluid-flow tests, researchers gained a detailed understanding of the Adventdalen geology and reservoir complexity. Adventdalen, with its fractured and low-porosity rock, proved to be an “unconventional” reservoir. The results from Longyearbyen provide insights applicable to similar geological conditions worldwide. In addition to extensive water-injection tests, the researchers conducted experimental CO₂ injection trials to evaluate capacity and sealing conditions. Although technically challenging, these efforts led to new flow models and reservoir characterizations useful for other CCS projects.

Despite not achieving large-scale CO₂ storage, the Longyearbyen projects significantly advanced the CCS field in Norway and globally. They contributed to shaping Norway’s role as a leading actor in CO₂ storage, strengthening domestic competence and infrastructure. This knowledge is invaluable and has created a bridge to larger projects, such as Northern Lights, which will store CO₂ from industrial sources on the Norwegian mainland beneath the North Sea. The Longyearbyen projects served as a research platform and pilot initiative, demonstrating how Norway can pursue ambitious climate targets through CO₂ storage.

Over many years, these projects also inspired international research communities. Svalbard became a venue for global collaboration, and the resulting research network strengthened international capacity in carbon storage. The wealth of data collected in Longyearbyen continues to influence the CCS field, aiding in technology and method development worldwide.

5.2.2.2 Optimized CO₂ storage in sloping aquifers (Upslope)

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The CO₂-Upslope project (2017-2019), led by the University of Oslo,investigated the potential for storing CO₂ in geological formations on the Norwegian continental shelf, specifically focusing on sloping aquifers. These are tilted, water-filled layers of porous rock that can trap CO₂ through dissolution in water and chemical reactions with minerals. The project aimed to improve understanding of the long-term physical and chemical behavior of CO₂ during storage and develop new methods for simulating and optimizing CO₂ storage in these formations.

Research and Innovations

The project employed an interdisciplinary approach, combining geological analysis, geophysical techniques, and numerical modeling. Key research activities included:

• Developing a new geological model for the Gassum Formation, a sloping aquifer in the Skagerrak basin.
• Evaluating the mineralogy and reservoir properties of the Gassum Formation.
• Developing and applying new models to estimate the amount of CO₂ that dissolves in water, becomes bound in minerals, and is trapped during migration in sloping aquifers.
• Developing models for estimating salt precipitation during injection.

Significance and Implications

The CO₂-Upslope project yielded significant insights with implications for safe and effective CO₂ storage in sloping aquifers:

• Enhanced understanding of CO₂ trapping: The project improved understanding of various CO₂ trapping mechanisms (dissolution, mineralization, and stratigraphic trapping) in these dynamic geological formations.
• Improved storage capacity estimation: New models and methods were developed to estimate the CO₂ storage potential of sloping aquifers more accurately.
• Increased confidence in CCS: The project’s findings contribute to greater confidence in the long-term safety and feasibility of CO₂ storage in sloping aquifers, supporting broader acceptance of CCS as a climate mitigation strategy.

Conclusion

The CO₂-Upslope project has successfully advanced the understanding and modeling of CO₂ storage in sloping aquifers. The project’s interdisciplinary approach, combining geological analysis, geophysical techniques, and numerical modeling, has led to the development of new tools and knowledge that can be applied to various storage sites. By improving the estimation of storage capacity and enhancing confidence in the long-term safety of CO₂ storage, CO₂-Upslope contributes significantly to the advancement of CCS technologies and supports efforts to achieve climate goals..

5.2.2.3 The SWAP projects: Groundbreaking steps toward future CO₂ storage

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As global efforts in carbon capture and storage intensify, Equinor has taken important steps on the Norwegian continental shelf to ensure substantial future CO₂ storage capacity. Through the SWAP (Strategic Well Acquisition Project) and SWAP2 projects, supported by CLIMIT, Equinor explored large-scale CO₂ storage potential near the Troll field, focusing on the Smeaheia area and the Horda Platform. These projects represent decisive actions toward realizing cost-effective, safe storage solutions at scale.

Initiated in 2019, the first SWAP project included an exploration well in license PL921, an area east of the Troll field and near the Aurora CO₂ storage site. Drilling in the Gladsheim structure offered a unique opportunity to gather extensive geological data from a dry well that showed significant CO₂ storage potential. Rather than focusing solely on hydrocarbon potential, Equinor collected additional data typically not acquired during exploration drilling.

A key goal was to verify the sealing quality of the primary caprock, the Draupne Formation. The results were positive, confirming that the reservoir has high capacity and is suitable for CO₂ storage.

These findings may also benefit Northern Lights.

SWAP2 – The next step in a strategic journey

Two years after SWAP, Equinor followed up with SWAP2, focusing on exploration well 31/11-1 in license PL785S at the Stovegolvet prospect, south on the Horda Platform. Data were collected from the Johansen Formation, a reservoir analogous to that used in the Northern Lights project. The objective was to verify the sealing quality of the primary caprock formations, the Draupne and Drake shales, and confirm large-scale storage potential in regionally extensive Jurassic sandstones.

Smeaheia – A monumental hub for CO₂ storage

Through the SWAP projects, the understanding of the Smeaheia area improved significantly, revealing conditions highly favorable for CO₂ storage. Extensive pressure measurements showed that the reservoir is well-suited for CO₂ storage and communicates effectively with the Troll field. This means it can receive large volumes of CO₂ without excessive pressure buildup.

Over time, Equinor’s efforts may establish a storage solution in Smeaheia with a capacity of up to 20 million metric tons of CO₂ per year.

Economic and strategic advantages

The SWAP projects were designed to accelerate CO₂ storage commercialization. Early access to geological data enables Equinor to bypass the need for a dedicated verification well, potentially saving hundreds of millions of kroner and significantly reducing uncertainty in the CO₂ storage process. With CLIMIT support, Equinor executed both SWAP and SWAP2, contributing essential knowledge for CCS efforts on the Norwegian continental shelf.

Catalyzing a sustainable future for industry

These projects show that the Norwegian continental shelf can play a central role in future carbon storage. The data collected will not only aid Northern Lights, but also other new entrants aiming to contribute to a sustainable transition.

The SWAP projects demonstrate how exploration of dry wells, often considered a disappointment in oil and gas contexts, can uncover new opportunities in CO₂ storage. Equinor and its partners have shown that the Norwegian shelf is ready to meet future demands for safe, large-scale storage solutions.

5.2.2.4 Geological storage of CO₂: Mathematical modeling and risk assessment (MatMoRA-II)

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From 2012 to 2017, the University of Bergen led MatMoRA-II, a project addressing key questions about capacity, long-term safety, and risk in geological CO₂ storage. Funded by CLIMIT, its goal was to improve numerical simulations of CO₂ storage, with particular focus on thermal, mechanical, and hydrodynamic processes.

Research and development
The project developed new numerical methods and models to handle complex and realistic scenarios in CO₂ storage. These models included:

• Reduced models that can efficiently simulate the thermal and geomechanical effects of CO₂ injection.
• Advanced simulations of CO₂ dissolution and flow in low-permeability structures.
• Studies of how the topography and integrity of the caprock affect CO₂ migration.

The project integrated several research tasks, including the development of reliable frameworks for software implementation and methods for fast and accurate simulation of fundamental flow physics. This enabled the coupling of different physical processes that are often dependent on specific reservoir conditions.

Significance and results
MatMoRA-II contributed to the development of world-class modeling tools that enable comprehensive risk assessments. These tools improve the understanding of potential CO₂ storage sites in Norway, strengthening Norway’s position in CCS technology.

The new models provide insights into how CO₂ behaves under different pressure and temperature conditions, and they enable more accurate estimates of storage capacity and risk. In particular, the project has delivered methods for simulating coupled phenomena such as thermal expansion, capillary effects, and mechanical deformation, which are critical factors in assessing storage integrity.

Further implications
MatMoRA-II has laid the foundation for future research projects and the development of safe and effective CO₂ storage. By combining advanced mathematical models with practical applications, the project has contributed to reducing the risks and costs of large-scale CO₂ storage. The project also highlights the importance of robust numerical simulation as a tool in CCS.

5.2.2.5 Safe long-term storage sealing of CO₂ in hydrate

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From 2013 to 2018, the University of Bergen led a research project exploring the storage of CO₂ in hydrate structures, under the guidance of Professor Bjørn Kvamme. The aim was to understand the mechanisms enabling stable CO₂ storage in hydrates while potentially releasing methane from natural gas hydrates. The project employed a multi-scale modeling strategy, from quantum mechanics to large-scale simulations, to elucidate the processes governing CO₂ storage and conversion within hydrates.

Research and results
The project focused on two main mechanisms for CH₄/CO₂ exchange in hydrate structures:

• A solid-state exchange where CO₂ causes melting of outer hydrate layers, releasing CH₄, and then CO₂ is trapped in a new hydrate structure.
• Formation of new CO₂ hydrate with free water in pores, which releases heat and accelerates the melting of CH₄ hydrate.

The project also explored how minerals affect water structures and adsorption of CO₂ and CH₄, as well as how the permeability of formations changes when CO₂ hydrate forms. Studies showed that the formation of CO₂ hydrates reduces permeability, which creates a dynamic balance between melting and formation of hydrate. The results were published in several scientific articles and attracted international interest.

International impact
The project has generated significant international attention, including from China, where Professor Kvamme has been invited to assist in the development of their hydrate energy program. Collaboration with the University of California has brought together three hydrate research groups to explore CO₂ storage in hydrates, and the project has contributed to the development of zero-emission concepts for hydrogen production using methane from hydrates.

Significance and implications
The project has established a new understanding of the mechanisms, stability, and economic benefits of CO₂ storage in hydrates. The research has laid the foundation for the commercialization of zero-emission concepts and created international collaboration opportunities in both energy production and climate innovation. Hydrate storage of CO₂ is proving to be a robust and stable solution that can contribute to global climate goals while providing valuable energy in the form of methane.

Through the combination of experiments, modeling, and international collaboration, the project has paved the way for further research and commercialization of technology for safe and effective CO₂ storage in hydrate reservoirs.

5.2.2.6 Protection of caprock integrity for large-scale CO₂ storage (PROTECT)

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The PROTECT project (2014–2018), led by Uni Research AS, aimed to investigate and ensure the integrity of caprock during large-scale CO₂ storage in saline aquifers. CO₂ injection increases reservoir pressure, which can lead to caprock fracturing or reactivation of existing faults. The project addressed these challenges through laboratory studies, numerical modeling, and field data to enhance the understanding of geomechanical processes affecting caprock stability.

Research efforts and results

PROTECT conducted extensive laboratory testing on shale and mudrock samples from the North Sea and Svalbard, including naturally fractured caprock. The experiments analyzed caprock responses to pressure, temperature, and supercritical CO₂ exposure. Findings showed that CO₂ can absorb water from shale, causing the rock to shrink and increasing fracture permeability. In contrast, the presence of liquid water significantly reduced rock strength, highlighting the complexity of fluid-rock interactions.

Numerical models were developed to simulate fracture mechanisms, fluid flow, and thermal effects in the caprock under CO₂ injection. These models were employed to assess the injection capacity of the Utsira Formation, a key resource for Norwegian CO₂ storage. Results indicated that the Utsira Formation could sustain injection rates up to 100 times the current rate at the Sleipner project, provided pressure limits are maintained.

The project also advanced monitoring techniques by integrating seismic, electromagnetic, and gravimetric data to improve the detection and tracking of CO₂ migration and pressure changes in the reservoir. These innovations enhanced data interpretation and yielded more reliable predictions of CO₂ storage safety.

Significance and implications

The PROTECT project has delivered valuable tools and insights to support the development of safe and cost-effective CO₂ storage operations. The project outcomes enable industry stakeholders to optimize injection strategies and mitigate risks associated with leakage and pressure-related issues in the caprock.

Through the education of two PhD candidates and one master’s student, the project has also contributed to building national competence in CCS. This effort reinforces Norway’s position as a global leader in carbon capture and storage and supports the country’s climate ambitions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

5.2.2.7 CO₂ storage in the North Sea: Quantification of uncertainties and error reduction (CONQUER)

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Between 2015 and 2019, NORCE led the research project CONQUER, which focused on quantifying uncertainty and reducing errors related to CO₂ storage in the subsurface. The project, funded by the CLIMIT program, aimed to develop simulation tools and methods to manage uncertainties related to geological data, modeling, and operational decisions for safe and effective CO₂ storage, particularly in the North Sea.

The project investigated key processes such as pressure buildup during injection, long-term migration of CO₂, and leakage risk through the caprock. To address these challenges, mathematical models were developed that could simulate CO₂ transport in reservoirs, taking into account uncertainty in physical parameters and models for dissolution and leakage. Uncertainty quantification was implemented through advanced numerical techniques such as polynomial chaos and multiresolution analysis, as well as by using reduced-physics models that combined simplified calculations with precise estimates of uncertainty.

The project also developed geomechanical models for simulating pressure and mechanical deformation in the reservoir and caprock, especially with regard to scenarios that can lead to leakage. An important result was the release of an open-source software for poromechanics, the study of the behavior of fluid-filled porous materials, which is compatible with SINTEF’s Matlab Reservoir Simulation Toolbox. This software will be important for future research and industrial applications in CCS.

Through collaboration with international partners such as the University of Colorado Boulder and using data from the Sleipner and Snøhvit storage fields, CONQUER contributed to developing a better understanding of CO₂ storage. The project also popularized the research through, among other things, an article in Bergens Tidende, which explained how uncertainty in CO₂ storage can be managed.

The CONQUER project has strengthened the foundation for large-scale CO₂ storage by reducing uncertainty and improving the basis for operational planning decisions. This contributes to safer and more cost-effective implementation of CCS technology and positions Norway as a leader in carbon capture and storage. The results also have broader applications, including modeling microplastic dispersal and clean combustion technology. By combining advanced simulation tools and field data, the project has paved the way for future research and industrial solutions that are crucial for meeting global climate challenges.

5.2.2.8 CO₂ seal bypass

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Between 2015 and 2018, the University of Oslo led a research project focused on understanding how CO₂ migrates through reservoir rocks and sealing layers in the subsurface. Funded by the CLIMIT program, the project aimed to improve the safety and efficiency of geological CO₂ storage, with a particular focus on future storage sites in the North Sea.

Research and results
The project investigated the dynamics of reservoirs and sealing layers by analyzing natural CO₂ flows and leakage patterns in sandstone formations. The research was based on field studies conducted in Utah, USA, where natural laboratories provide insights into how CO₂ interacts with subsurface rocks. Observations from this region, combined with data from sites with active CO₂ leakage, were used to map flow and changes in sandstones under pressure and temperature conditions resembling those in deep reservoirs.

The project integrated fieldwork, laboratory studies, and numerical modeling. By implementing field data into 3D simulation models, the researchers identified critical factors influencing flow and leakage, including diagenetic status and rock strength. These models are invaluable for planning and evaluating storage sites and for developing strategies to prevent and mitigate leakage.

The project also contributed to the education of a new generation of geologists, with 11 MSc students and one PhD student completing theses based on project data. Results have been published in scientific journals and presented at international conferences.

Significance and implications
The CO₂ Seal Bypass project has provided new insights into how CO₂ migrates in complex geological systems. This knowledge is essential for ensuring the safe storage of CO₂ in future large-scale projects, particularly in regions like the North Sea. By combining field observations with advanced modeling, the project has laid the groundwork for improved planning and monitoring of storage sites.

Following the project’s conclusion, researchers have begun exploring new challenges, including how extensive fracture systems influence CO₂ flow in the subsurface. This demonstrates how the project has not only contributed critical knowledge but also inspired further research.

5.2.2.9 Avoiding loss of CO₂ injectivity

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Between 2016 and 2018, SINTEF led a research project, funded by the CLIMIT program, which aimed to understand and prevent loss of injectivity in CO₂ storage wells. The main focus was to investigate how the mechanisms of salt precipitation and hydrate formation can affect reservoir permeability and thus the injection capacity in CO₂ storage reservoirs.

Through experimental studies and numerical modeling, it was investigated how salt precipitation and hydrate formation occur under different reservoir conditions. The project conducted experiments with sandstone cores where supercritical CO₂ was injected to study precipitation mechanisms. Salt precipitation was observed, but the amount was not large enough to significantly reduce injectivity. Hydrate formation, on the other hand, proved in several cases to be able to lead to complete clogging of pores and loss of injectivity. This process was studied at both core and pore scale using advanced imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging and micro-models.

On the numerical side, the project developed a multiphase model that simulated flow and thermodynamics in CO₂-water-salt/hydrate systems. The model used advanced thermodynamic equations and was validated against experimental data. The model provides insight into how injection parameters such as temperature, pressure, and composition affect the risk of clogging.

Significance and implications

The results from the project have significant implications for large-scale CCS operations:

• Increased operational reliability: The insights contribute to ensuring continuous and efficient injection, which reduces the need to drill new wells and increases economic sustainability.
• Improved storage security: The studies on hydrate formation indicate that CO₂ hydrates can act as a secondary seal, which strengthens confidence in the long-term safety of CO₂ storage.
• Innovative tools: The developed simulation tool provides the industry with better opportunities to optimize injection strategies and reduce the risk of loss of injectivity.

5.2.2.10 Stress path and hysteresis effects on integrity of CO₂ storage site (SPHINCSS)

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The SPHINCSS project (2017–2020), led by SINTEF, investigated how stress changes and hysteresis effects affect the safety and integrity of CO₂ storage sites. The project aimed to understand how geomechanical changes in the reservoir rocks, caprocks, and surrounding faults are influenced by CO₂ injection. This is critical to assessing the safety of both aquifers and depleted oil and gas reservoirs as storage sites.

The research included laboratory experiments and modeling to assess how variations in pore pressure, stresses, and temperature affect reservoir behavior. Draupne shale, donated by Equinor, was used as a test material to assess the mechanical and chemical effects of exposure to CO₂ in various states, including dry CO₂, CO₂ dissolved in brine, and supercritical CO₂. The tests showed that the strength of the shale is minimally weakened by dry CO₂, while CO₂ dissolved in brine led to somewhat greater, but still limited, weakening.

Results and findings

• Laboratory tests revealed how CO₂ affects the strength and stiffness of rocks. Cyclic tests showed small changes in mechanical properties, indicating that the risk of shear fractures in the caprock is very low.
• Modeling of geomechanical changes, including fracture risk along faults, showed that depletion of oil and gas reservoirs can lead to irreversible stress concentrations. When refilled with CO₂, this can increase the risk of leakage along faults. Aquifers proved more resistant to pressure changes.
• Experiments on natural fractures in Draupne shale showed that the fractures can “heal” under deformation, which reduces the risk of leakage.

Significance and recommendations

The project has provided important insights into how different rocks and reservoir types react to CO₂ storage. The results contribute to a better understanding of how stresses and pressure variations should be managed to ensure safe storage.

The project recommends more comprehensive modeling and characterization of faults in larger storage projects and has increased confidence in CCS as a reliable technology for large storage volumes.

5.2.2.11 Understanding of CO₂ dissolution in oil by convection-driven mixing and wettability alteration (UNCOVER)

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The UNCOVER project (2017–2021), led by NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, aimed to investigate the physical processes related to CO₂ dissolution in oil and water in porous reservoir rocks. The project focused on how convection-driven mixing and changes in the wettability of the rocks affect CO₂ storage and oil recovery, with laboratory experiments as the central method.

Research and results

Using a unique experimental setup, the project developed a comprehensive dataset that provides insights into how CO₂ mixes with oil and water under realistic reservoir conditions. The experiments were carried out in a custom-made 2D model, in addition to core flooding experiments to study flow patterns in real rocks. The results from the experiments showed:

• How convection-driven mixing accelerates CO₂ dissolution in oil and water, and how this affects fluid flows in the reservoirs.
• How changes in the rock’s wettability affect the interaction between CO₂, oil, and water.
• The importance of gravity currents and convective mixing during the displacement of oil with CO₂.

The dataset was used to validate numerical models developed in collaboration with the Open Porous Media (OPM) initiative. These models provide more accurate predictions for CO₂ storage and enhanced oil recovery at the field scale.

5.2.2.12 Nanoparticles for stabilizing CO₂ foam for combined storage and energy production from mature oil fields

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The project, led by the University of Bergen between 2018 and 2022, investigated how carbonate reservoirs can be used for safe storage of CO₂ while enabling energy production from mature oil fields. This was a laboratory-based study that focused on dissolution mechanisms and flow dynamics in carbonate reservoirs – a rock type known for its high reactivity and heterogeneous pore structure, which can create challenges for safe storage.

Using advanced experimental methods and new technology, the researchers studied how CO₂ affects carbonate reservoirs. The project uncovered important mechanisms for how reactive transport processes can lead to rock dissolution and the formation of leakage points. At the same time, the researchers developed technologies to stabilize CO₂ foam using nanoparticles, which can seal leakage pathways and contribute to effective CO₂ storage.

Results and findings                                                   

• The project established new experimental methods to study reactive transport processes in carbonate reservoirs at both the pore and core scale.
• A new mechanism was identified: CO₂ as a reaction product can encapsulate carbonate particles and prevent further local dissolution. This discovery challenges previous assumptions and provides new insights into how storage formations behave.
• The development of imaging technologies to track CO₂ flow at the Darcy scale contributed to improved understanding of preferred flow paths and reservoir integrity.

Implications

The findings have implications beyond CCS, including applications such as groundwater flow, radioactive waste management, and oil recovery.

5.2.2.13 Preventing loss of near-well permeability in CO₂ injection wells

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This project (2018-2023), led by SINTEF, focused on understanding and preventing permeability reduction near CO₂ injection wells. The research addressed challenges related to salt precipitation and other mechanisms that can lead to pore clogging in reservoir rocks, which can reduce the efficiency and safety of CO₂ storage.

When dry CO₂ is injected into porous rocks containing brine, the water can evaporate, leading to the precipitation of salt crystals that clog the pores. This project developed models and conducted experiments to better understand this process and propose solutions.

Results

• Modeling of salt precipitation: Development of an equation of state to predict the conditions under which salt precipitation occurs. This was implemented in the open-source simulation code MRST and used to model the effect of salt crystals on permeability.
• Experimental studies: Small-scale injection experiments with different rock types were performed to investigate how factors such as flow rate, direction, and brine type affect precipitation and clogging. The results were validated through scaled-down well tests in realistic geometries.
• Mitigation measures: Testing of chemical methods to counteract injection-related losses in permeability.
• Integration into simulation tools: The results were used to predict losses in injection capacity under field conditions, especially for pilot projects like Smeaheia.

Significance and implications

The project developed a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of salt precipitation and how this affects flow properties in the reservoir. Important contributions include:

• New knowledge about how salt precipitates and affects permeability.
• Understanding of how different geological and operational conditions affect the risk of clogging.
• Tools to simulate and predict injection efficiency under different scenarios.
• Practical recommendations for operators, including measures to minimize the risk of clogging in specific
  reservoirs.
  

5.2.2.14 Quantification of fault-related leakage risk (FRISK)

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The FRISK project (2019–2023), led by the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), developed new knowledge and tools to assess the risk of CO₂ leakage along faults in reservoirs under consideration for carbon storage. The project focused on understanding and modeling fluid flow in faults, particularly with regard to structural uncertainties and changes in reservoir pressure during injection.

The project addressed a significant technological challenge related to the assessment of fault zones as potential CO₂ storage sites, especially in areas such as the Horda platform and Smeaheia in the North Sea. The work included theoretical research, experimental analyses, and field studies.

Results

• Fault modeling: Development of methods for mapping and quantifying fault complexity, based on geometry, growth history, and properties that affect sealing capacity.
• Flow properties in faults: New tools were developed to calculate fault permeability and simulate fluid flow in single- and two-phase systems.
• Studies of the Vette Fault Zone: In the Smeaheia area, analyses showed that small fluid volumes can migrate upwards along thin faults, but that overlying stratigraphic layers with high clay content act as good caprocks.
• Risk assessment: Models for quantifying leakage risk and identifying key parameters that control uncertainty were developed and tested.
• Dissemination: The results were shared at meetings, conferences, and in peer-reviewed publications, and have been well received by both academia and industry.

Achieved effects

FRISK has contributed to an improved workflow for risk analysis of faults in CO₂ storage projects. The developed tools and models make it possible to assess leakage risk more accurately and identify faults with properties that enable safe storage. The study of the Vette Fault Zone has provided valuable insights into the sealing capacity of faults in the North Sea, although it remains to qualify these reservoirs as storage sites.

5.2.2.15 Overburden analysis and seal integrity study for CO₂ sequestration in the North Sea (OASIS)

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This project (2018-2023), led by the University of Oslo, aimed to understand how caprocks and overlying layers can ensure safe and permanent CO₂ storage in the North Sea. The project focused on areas like Smeaheia, east of the Troll field, and developed methods and tools to assess storage capacity, injection properties, and the mechanisms that prevent leakage.

Through the analysis of geological data like core samples, wireline logs, and seismic data, detailed 3D geomechanical models were developed to assess the risk of fracturing and leakage. Laboratory tests on rock samples provided insights into mechanical properties such as Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, while petrographic analyses revealed the mineralogy and sedimentary processes. This formed the basis for a comprehensive evaluation of the sealing integrity of caprocks and the overburden.

The project also utilized stochastic seismic inversion to map variations in rock properties. Methods for assessing pressure buildup and reducing leakage risk were developed, which have direct relevance for future storage projects. In addition, OASIS contributed to competence development by educating Ph.D., Postdoc, and MSc students in CCS technology.

Significance and implications

The results from OASIS include a better understanding of storage capacity and safety in CO₂ storage, the development of tools for risk assessment, and practical solutions that can be used in existing and future CCS projects on the Norwegian continental shelf. The project has delivered important knowledge and innovation that supports the safe implementation of large-scale carbon storage.

5.2.2.16 Reusing depleted oil and gas fields for CO₂ sequestration

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The RETURN project (2021–), led by SINTEF, is working to enable large-scale storage of CO₂ in former oil and gas reservoirs with low pressure after production. The project brings together partners from Norway, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, and Canada, and addresses technical challenges to make the reuse of such reservoirs safe, efficient, and cost-effective.

Old oil and gas fields are ideal for CO₂ storage due to their well-known geological properties and low pressure, which reduces the risk of leakage. RETURN focuses on overcoming challenges related to the injection of cold CO₂, which can lead to freezing, hydrate formation, and phase transitions that clog pore networks and hinder injection.

Expected effects

RETURN expects to contribute new knowledge and tools to monitor and manage challenges in injecting CO₂ into depleted reservoirs. The project focuses on:

• Reducing the risk of stress and leakage associated with temperature and pressure changes.
• Methods to minimize plugging and maintain well integrity during injection.
• Practical solutions for cost-effective reuse of reservoirs as long-term storage sites for CO₂.

5.2.2.17 THERMESI – Thermal Effects on Seal Integrity

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The project, led by NGI, started in 2024 and focuses on understanding how the injection of cold CO₂ into warm reservoirs affects the integrity of the caprock. Geological storage of CO₂ is crucial to achieving climate goals, but large-scale injection involves thermal and mechanical stresses that can increase pore pressure and weaken the stability of the storage complex. The purpose of THERMESI is to illuminate the risk of the caprock losing stability due to thermal loads, and to develop advanced numerical models that can predict and manage such changes.

Activities and results

The project conducts laboratory and full-scale experiments to investigate how thermal stresses affect caprock materials and the interface between the reservoir and the caprock. These experiments are validated against detailed mathematical models, which are further expanded to regional-scale simulations to assess the implications of thermal effects on geomechanical stability and leakage risk. The results are shared in the form of scientific articles and conference contributions, with the aim of ensuring safe and effective CO₂ storage by maintaining the stability of the caprock.

5.2.2.18 Beyond the barrel – From oil recovery to climate recovery

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The use of CO₂ for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has been part of the oil industry’s technology portfolio for decades. On the Norwegian continental shelf, EOR has been explored through extensive studies and research, but without being realized in practice. Although CLIMIT and other actors are now shifting their focus towards more environmentally friendly alternatives such as CO₂ storage in saline aquifers, EOR projects have nevertheless contributed to significant knowledge development in CO₂ handling and reservoir technology. This makes them an important part of our overall experience with CCS.

A legacy of potential and its inherent challenges

Studies conducted by both operators and research institutions have shown significant potential for increased oil recovery using CO₂ injection. For example, it was demonstrated that EOR can increase recovery by 4-7% in fields such as Ekofisk, Gullfaks, and Draugen. At Ekofisk alone, a 1% increase in recovery corresponds to approximately 80 million barrels of oil equivalent – a significant gain.

The technical mechanism behind CO₂-EOR is impressive. Under miscible conditions, CO₂ and oil can form a single phase. This reduces interfacial tension and makes the oil easier to produce. In addition, CO₂ mobilizes previously immobile oil volumes. This makes EOR a very effective method under the right conditions.

Despite promising results, challenges with access to large and secure CO₂ sources, as well as high demand for investments, have made it difficult to realize such projects in Norway. Ekofisk and Gullfaks alone would have required at least 5 million tons of CO₂ annually for a full field implementation – an amount that has been challenging to obtain in a cost-effective manner.

Bubbles with benefits

CO₂ foam technology is an innovative method used in EOR and CO₂ storage to improve the efficiency and sustainability of these processes. It works by combining CO₂ with surfactants (soap-like chemicals) that form a stable foam in the reservoir. This foam controls how CO₂ flows through the subsurface, preventing the gas from moving too quickly or uncontrollably through high-permeability channels. The foam allows CO₂ to be distributed more evenly in the reservoir, so that more oil is pushed towards the production wells. The foam ensures that larger amounts of CO₂ remain permanently stored in the reservoir. This helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. By using CO₂ foam, oil recovery increases while injection costs are reduced. This makes the process more attractive to the industry. In some cases, the technology can achieve carbon-negative oil recovery, where more CO₂ is stored than is released in the process. CO₂ foam technology can be used in different reservoir types and adapted to specific geological conditions. This makes it relevant for both oil recovery and dedicated CO₂ storage.

Foam technology combines CO₂ with surfactants to form a stable foam that regulates the gas’s mobility in the reservoir. This improves both displacement efficiency and storage capacity. By using foam in CO₂ injection processes, unwanted flow through the reservoir can be reduced. This increases oil displacement and stores larger amounts of CO₂ permanently. Foam technology provides economic incentives for the industry by combining increased oil production with cost-effective CO₂ storage, while enabling carbon-negative recovery processes. Early use of foam in EOR processes has proven crucial to maximizing both oil recovery and CO₂ storage. This gives the technology’s application unique value in CCUS strategies.

The power and value of high-quality research

Although CO₂-EOR has not been commercially implemented on the Norwegian continental shelf, research in this area has led to invaluable knowledge that now strengthens efforts in CO₂ storage.

Among the most important lessons are:

• Fluid properties: Studies have revealed how CO₂ behaves in the subsurface, including solubility in water, injectivity, and flow characteristics in the reservoir.
• Reservoir simulation: Modeling of CO₂ flow has improved our understanding of how the gas can be moved and stored safely. Projects using CO₂ foam contributed to developing better numerical models.
• Materials technology: Research has identified and addressed challenges related to corrosion, which is crucial for both EOR and pure CO₂ storage.

Furthermore, Norwegian research institutions such as SINTEF have documented that between 70-100% of injected CO₂ remains stored in the reservoir after an EOR cycle. This indicates that the technology can not only contribute to increased oil recovery, but also to permanent CO₂ storage – a double benefit in the fight against climate change.

EOR’s evolution – From production to sustainability

Today, the focus in the Norwegian oil and gas industry is on safe and long-term CO₂ storage in aquifers and depleted fields. At the same time, several European initiatives have stipulated that CO₂ that is captured and transported should only be used for storage and not for oil recovery.

This shift reflects a global effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and Norwegian actors are leading the way in developing infrastructure and value chains for CO₂ storage. EOR has thus become less relevant as a strategy, but the technologies and knowledge developed through EOR research live on in today’s CCS projects.

Standing on the shoulders of giants – Advancing CCS with the legacy of EOR

Although CLIMIT no longer prioritizes EOR in its project portfolio, it is important to recognize the value of the work that has been done. EOR projects have not only shown us the potential for increased recovery, but have also laid the foundation for today’s successes in CO₂ storage.

Through EOR research, we have gained a better understanding of subsurface dynamics, developed new technological solutions, and established robust models for how CO₂ can be used and stored. This knowledge has strengthened Norway’s position as a global leader in CCS and provides us with a solid foundation for future climate work.

EOR has shown us that the path to sustainability is not always straightforward, but that even technologies that have lost their commercial relevance can provide us with valuable tools to meet tomorrow’s challenges.

5.2.3 Further work on CO₂ reservoir and caprocks

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• Improved reservoir characterization: Continue the development of more accurate and efficient methods to characterize reservoirs, including the use of advanced geophysics, laboratory experiments, and numerical modeling. Focus on reducing uncertainty in estimates of storage capacity and flow properties.
• Increased understanding of caprock behavior: Research on the long-term behavior of caprocks under the influence of CO₂ injection, including studies of mechanical and geochemical changes, as well as the potential for micro-leakages and fractures.
• Modeling of geochemical reactions: Develop more sophisticated models that simulate geochemical reactions between CO₂, formation water, and rock, to predict long-term effects on the reservoir and caprock, and assess the potential for mineralization and changes in porosity and permeability.
• Integrated risk assessment: Develop integrated models that combine reservoir characterization, caprock analysis, and geochemical modeling to provide a comprehensive risk assessment for CO₂ storage and identify potential challenges early on.

5.2.4 Conclusion

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Understanding the reservoir and caprock is fundamental for safe and effective CO₂ storage. Through the CLIMIT program, significant progress has been made in characterizing reservoirs, evaluating caprock integrity, and modeling geochemical reactions. Further work is needed to improve the accuracy of models, reduce uncertainty, and optimize the CO₂ storage process. Continuous research and innovation in reservoir and caprock will be crucial to implementing CO₂ storage on a large scale and contributing to achieving climate goals.

5.3 CLIMIT program category – Monitoring and simulation

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To ensure effective and secure CO₂ storage, it is essential to monitor the behavior of CO₂ in the subsurface and predict its long-term migration. Monitoring and simulation are important tools to verify storage security, optimize injection strategies, and manage potential risks. CLIMIT supports research that addresses these challenges within the program category of monitoring and simulation.

5.3.1 Challenges

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• Development of effective monitoring methods: It is necessary to develop reliable and cost-effective methods to monitor the spread and behavior of CO₂ in the reservoir over time. This includes detecting potential leaks, monitoring pressure development, and tracking CO₂ migration.
• Accurate simulation of CO₂ migration: To predict the long-term behavior of CO₂ in the reservoir and assess the risk of leakage, accurate simulation models that take into account complex factors such as reservoir properties, geochemical reactions, and pressure changes are needed.
• Data collection and analysis: Effective monitoring and simulation require the collection and analysis of large amounts of data from various sources, such as seismic surveys, well data, and geochemical analyses. It is important to develop methods to integrate and interpret this data to get a holistic picture of CO₂ storage.
• Uncertainty management: Uncertainty in data and models can affect the accuracy of simulations and risk assessments. It is important to develop methods to quantify and manage uncertainty in monitoring and simulation.

5.3.2 The status on monitoring and simulation research

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Several CLIMIT-funded projects have worked to improve the monitoring and simulation of CO₂ storage and developed solutions to address the challenges:

5.3.2.1 The Svelvik projects – Innovative monitoring for safe CO₂ storage

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With a growing global focus on carbon capture and storage, Norway has established itself as a key player in the development of safe and effective solutions for CO₂ storage. SINTEF’s Svelvik projects are a good example of this commitment. In the period 2009-2019, support from CLIMIT triggered the realization of three distinct CCS projects in Svelvik, all of which have contributed to improving monitoring procedures and increasing understanding of CO₂ movements in the subsurface. This work is crucial for future CO₂ storage initiatives with safe storage.

Establishing a groundbreaking field laboratory

In 2009, the project “CO₂ Field Laboratory for Monitoring and Safety Assessment” started. The goal was ambitious: to develop monitoring procedures that ensure that unwanted CO₂ movements are detected early in any CO₂ storage, so that necessary measures can be implemented quickly and efficiently.

The project included a field trial in Svelvik, where two controlled injections of CO₂ were to be carried out at different depths in the subsurface. The focus was to monitor the movement of the injected CO₂ using several advanced techniques.

• Phase 1: Conducting geophysical surveys and a test drilling to map the geological conditions. This was essential to confirm the suitability of the area for the planned investigations in the next phase.
• Phase 2: Carrying out injection and monitoring trials. In 2011, a shallow injection was carried out by drilling an inclined well down to approx. 25 meters deep, where CO₂ was injected. Above the injection site, any leaks to the surface were carefully studied.

Although the deep injection was not carried out due to lack of industry support and less optimal geological conditions than expected, the project laid the foundation for future research. SINTEF has since worked to integrate the field laboratory into European collaborative projects and has received funding through ECCSEL for further development and use of the facility.

International collaboration for advanced CO₂ monitoring

In 2013, an ambitious collaborative project was launched. The project, called “Joint Inversion and Petrophysical Characterization for Improved CO₂ Monitoring at Ketzin and Svelvik”, aimed to improve understanding of geological CO₂ storage and develop more effective monitoring methods.

This project united the expertise of the GeoForschungs-Zentrum Potsdam (GFZ) in Germany and SINTEF in Norway, and combined methodologies from the CO₂ sites Ketzin and Svelvik. The central research tasks were:

• Integration of monitoring methods: Combining GFZ’s successful use of Electromagnetic Resistivity Tomography (ERT) at Ketzin with SINTEF’s advanced Full Waveform Inversion (FWI) and joint inversion codes.
• Advanced data analysis: Applying 3D/4D FWI and joint FWI-ERT inversions to existing and new data from Ketzin, and optimizing these methods for upcoming repeat measurements under the German COMPLETE project.
• Method validation: Comparing and evaluating methods and results from individual and joint inversions to identify the most effective monitoring strategies.
• Petrophysical characterization: Analyzing core samples of caprock and reservoir to better understand the properties of the rocks, with results that were also integrated into the joint inversion.

Through this international collaboration, the imaging of the CO₂ plume and the quantification of injected CO₂ at the Ketzin pilot plant were significantly improved. The project leveraged the experience from Svelvik to promote technological development that will be important for future CO₂ storage projects.

Pioneering work with fiber optic sensor technologies

In 2019, a new and innovative project was carried out with a focus on modern sensor technologies. The aim was to collect data from fiber optic cables during the Pre-ACT campaign in October 2019.

The research focused on the use of fiber optic sensor systems as a potential monitoring solution for CO₂ storage:

• Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
• Distributed Strain Sensing (DSS)
• Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS)

By comparing data from these fiber optic measurements with traditional methods, the researchers wanted to evaluate the effectiveness and precision of the new technologies. The injection tests in the autumn of 2019 at the Svelvik CO₂ Field Lab provided a unique opportunity for this.

The collected data was carefully quality controlled and securely stored. The aim is for this data to form the basis for a future KPN application, which will enable further analysis and comparison with conventional seismic data collected by the Pre-ACT project.

Significance of the Svelvik Projects

One of the most important contributions from the Svelvik projects is the development and testing of new monitoring methods. Through practical field trials, the projects have:

• Tested advanced geophysical techniques: By integrating methods such as Electromagnetic Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Full Waveform Inversion (FWI), the researchers have improved the ability to image and quantify the CO₂ plume in the subsurface.
• Explored fiber optic sensor technologies: The use of Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), Distributed Strain Sensing (DSS), and Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) has shown the potential for continuous and high-resolution monitoring of CO₂ movements.

5.3.2.2 The H-NET projects – Innovative seismic monitoring for safe CO₂ storage

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Through several phases from 2018 to the present day, these projects have focused on developing and demonstrating cost-effective monitoring technologies within the framework of the Norwegian storage regulations, with particular emphasis on seismic monitoring of CO₂ storage in the Horda platform region.

Establishing a basis for seismic monitoring

In 2018, the Smeaheia Natural Seismicity Network (SNS-Net) project started. Equinor was the project manager, with partners NORSAR, Shell, and TotalEnergies. The background for the project was Equinor’s desire to demonstrate cost-effective monitoring technologies within the Norwegian storage regulations. Since the start of CO₂ storage at Sleipner in 1996, Equinor has been a pioneer in CCS technology, and NORSAR, with its leading international position in the application and interpretation of microseismic information, was a key partner.

The project aimed to investigate solutions for seismic instrumentation that were sufficient and cost-effective to establish the necessary background seismicity level in the Smeaheia area. This included assessing both land-based and seabed solutions, with a focus on optimizing station geometry and reducing noise. By establishing a monitoring solution that could detect background seismicity, it was desired to be able to assess any changes in the stress field caused by CO₂ injection. This would ensure that the monitoring solution was adapted to the requirements in the Norwegian storage regulations and contribute to documenting the safe storage of CO₂.

Further development and implementation of monitoring technology

In 2019, work continued with the H-Net project. Equinor was the applicant, with the same partners as before. As the operator for the full-scale CCS project Northern Lights, together with Shell and Total, Equinor wanted to demonstrate cost-effective monitoring technologies. The project built on the findings from SNS-Net and previous CLIMIT projects to mature the technology around microseismic monitoring.

Changes in the storage location from Smeaheia to Aurora required adjustments in the monitoring strategy. The project was divided into several phases, where phase 1 was already completed. In phase 2, the concepts were continued with the implementation of instrumentation on land and the use of permanent seismic nodes (PRM) on the seabed, as well as the initiation of data collection and reporting. The goal was to establish the world’s first continuous monitoring of an offshore CO₂ storage. By balancing costs and quality, it was desired to show that large-scale CO₂ storage is feasible elsewhere as well. The project sought to meet the requirements in the Norwegian storage regulations by implementing best practices for monitoring techniques.

Preparation for injection and extended monitoring

In 2021, phase 3 of the H-Net project was initiated. Equinor was the applicant, with partners Shell, TotalEnergies, Northern Lights JV, NORSAR, and the University of Bergen. The project focused on pre-operational monitoring before the planned start of CO₂ injection in 2024. The purpose was to build a solid understanding of natural seismicity as a basis for assessing possible induced seismicity during the injection period.

The continuation of previous phases included operation of the land-based seismic array HNAR on Holsnøy and testing of new seabed seismometers. The main activities in the project included routine operation of the HNAR seismic, testing of offshore deployment of seabed seismometers, advanced data analysis and interpretation research, as well as risk assessment and data integration. The goal was to establish the world’s first continuous microseismic monitoring array for an offshore CO₂ storage project, ensure safe storage, and reduce uncertainty related to long-term storage of CO₂. The project would also meet regulatory requirements by implementing advanced monitoring technologies.

The HNAR array has matured to be directly funded by the industry. This reflects confidence in the project’s relevance and value, and is considered a success for the CLIMIT program.

The importance of increased partner collaboration

Through the first three phases of the H-Net projects, there has been a significant increase in the number and diversity of partners. Several new players have joined, including specialized technology companies and academic institutions. This expansion of the partnership has brought in specialized expertise in fiber optic technology, geophysical modeling, and seabed seismic.

The involvement of the University of Bergen has promoted research-driven innovation and contributed to knowledge development. This strengthens collaboration between industry and academia. This is crucial to drive technological progress. The fact that international companies such as Shell and TotalEnergies are involved expands the project’s global network and provides access to advanced technology. In phase 3, Northern Lights JV joined as a new partner, which further strengthened the link to the Longship project.

Increased partnership in this series of projects has important implications. Firstly, it accelerates technology development by pooling resources and broad expertise. This can contribute to faster maturation of new monitoring technologies. Secondly, it provides better risk management; a larger partner network enables more comprehensive risk assessments and implementation of robust monitoring solutions. Furthermore, it promotes best practices, as collaboration facilitates knowledge sharing and the establishment of international standards for CO₂ storage and monitoring. Finally, it strengthens Norway’s position as a player in CCS and seismic monitoring, which can attract global interest and investment.

The monitoring journey advances: Phase 4 application under review

An application for funding for phase 4 was received in October 2024, and is currently being processed by CLIMIT. NORSAR is now the applicant, and the partner list has been further expanded.

5.3.2.3 The ACT projects – Innovative monitoring for safe CO₂ storage

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Effective monitoring of CO₂ storage sites has been essential for safe and permanent storage. Among the prominent projects that have contributed to the development of advanced monitoring systems are DigiMon, SENSE, and SHARP, all part of the ACT program (Accelerating CCS Technologies).

DigiMon: Digital Monitoring of CO₂ storage projects

The DigiMon project aimed to accelerate the implementation of CCS by developing and demonstrating a cost-effective, flexible, and intelligent digital monitoring and alert system. The project built on results from various technical and social science studies carried out by the consortium’s partners, which included instrument suppliers, research institutions, and operators such as Equinor and Repsol.

By integrating a wide range of technologies for measurement, monitoring, and verification (MMV) of CO₂ storage, such as fiber optic sensor technology (DxS), seismic point sensors, and gravimetry, combined with ethernet-based digital communication and real-time web-based data processing software, DigiMon offered a new and cost-effective solution for early warning and monitoring of CO₂ reservoirs and underground barriers.

The project focused on monitoring CO₂ migration in the reservoir using passive geophysical measurements of changes in saturation and pressure, as well as monitoring well integrity with downhole sensors. In addition, work was done on monitoring stress and early detection of CO₂ leakage anomalies.

Through experimental laboratory studies, collection of field test data, modeling, and optimization, DigiMon contributed to the improvement of individual system components and the development of workflows for processing and interpreting monitoring data. A strong focus on interdisciplinarity between technical disciplines and social sciences characterized the research, and unique methods were also developed to assess CCS technologies based on social acceptance and utility value.

SENSE: Ensuring the integrity of CO₂ storage sites through surface monitoring

The SENSE project was based on the use of monitoring technology and methods to link surface uplift to hydromechanical processes in the reservoir. By developing measurement techniques that captured small movements on a millimeter scale on land and the seabed, the project performed measurements in four different case studies. These movements were linked to reservoir pressure through geomechanical models and inversion methods, with the aim of concluding whether CO₂ in the reservoir was moving as expected or if something abnormal was happening, so that an alarm signal could be given to the operator.

The four case studies included:

1. Hatfield Moors in England, where the relationship between pressure changes in a sandstone reservoir used for natural gas storage and surface movements was analyzed.
2. In Salah CO₂ storage site in Algeria, where post-injection data was studied to see how the surface reacted after injection was stopped.
3. Boknis Eck offshore in Germany, where full-scale experiments were carried out and seabed movements were measured as a result of injection or simulated uplift.
4. Gulf of Mexico, where geological and geophysical data were used for various CO₂ injection scenarios, and movement on the seabed was estimated through geomechanical modeling.

SENSE brought together 14 partners from 9 countries, including Equinor, NGI, Quad Geometrics, and the University of Oslo from Norway, as well as international institutions from Germany, UK, France, Spain, USA, Japan, Australia, and South Korea. The project helped to test and validate techniques for continuous measurement of ground movements, develop methodology to link these measurements to mechanical events in the reservoir, and offer operators cost-effective methods for monitoring and safe storage of CO₂.  

SHARP: Quantifying risk in CO₂ storage through stress data and geomechanical models

The SHARP project addressed three priority research areas to improve technologies needed for large-scale CO₂ storage. Geomechanical response to CO₂ injection represents a significant uncertainty in the assessment of storage sites, and SHARP aimed to reduce this uncertainty.

Through an interdisciplinary and international consortium with 16 partners from 5 countries, the project developed basin-scale geomechanical models that included tectonic stresses and the effects of post-glacial movements. Knowledge of the current stress field in the North Sea was improved by integrating earthquake catalogs and data on past earthquakes and fault movements. The project also quantified rock strength and identified fracture properties suitable for monitoring and risk assessment.

SHARP is expected to have accelerated the maturation of several case studies in the North Sea and India, and contributed to scaling up storage prospects in saline aquifers such as Northern Lights in the Horda area and new prospects in the Greater Bunter Sandstone area. By developing technology for quantifying subsurface deformation and cost-effective risk management of CO₂ storage, the project provided effective tools to assess and manage the risk of leaks. Strategies for monitoring deformation and induced seismicity were communicated to operators and authorities to increase confidence in storage security.

Significance of the ACT projects for future CO₂ storage

DigiMon, SENSE, and SHARP have all promoted the development of cost-effective and advanced monitoring systems that are essential for safe and effective CO₂ storage. Through the integration of advanced technologies, development of new methods, and international collaboration, these projects have helped to reduce barriers to CCS implementation. They have ensured that storage takes place in a way that is acceptable to society, and strengthened confidence in CCS.

By focusing on both technical and social aspects, the projects have laid the foundation for future solutions that benefit the environment and society. Their contributions are important for achieving safe and effective CO₂ storage.

5.3.2.4 Distributed Seismic Monitoring for Geological CO₂ Storage (DemoDas)

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Between 2016 and 2019, NORCE, in collaboration with NTNU and NORSAR, carried out a project to explore the use of DAS for monitoring geological CO₂ storage. DAS technology uses fiber optic cables as sensors to detect vibrations and seismic signals, and has the potential to become a cost-effective solution for long-term monitoring of CO₂ storage sites.

During the project, three prototypes of DAS instruments were developed and tested both in the laboratory and in the field. Field trials were carried out at the NTNU field laboratory in Trondheim and at the CaMi Field Research Station in Canada. Using fiber cables mounted on the surface and in wells, the DAS system could detect man-made tremors and seismic signals. Tests showed that signals could be captured over a length of 50 km of fiber cable, but challenges arose with signal interpretation, especially for long distances.

The project also included analyses of natural fractures and faults as potential leakage pathways for CO₂. Field studies in Mexico and Utah, USA, confirmed a clear link between fracture zones and CO₂ leakage. Although DAS could not be tested in full-scale injection scenarios during the project period, historical data, such as the 1989 North Sea blowout, were analyzed to understand gas migration in the stratigraphy above the reservoir.

Among the project’s main results was a better understanding of the potential of DAS technology to monitor geological processes and detect leaks. DAS proved to be a promising tool for permanent monitoring, but further development is needed to improve data analysis methods and interpretation accuracy. The project also contributed to the design phase of the ECCSEL Svelvik CO₂ Field Lab and laid the foundation for future research and international collaborations.

5.3.2.5 The HPC Projects for gigatonne CO₂ storage – Groundbreaking software for large-scale storage challenges

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For CCS to contribute significantly to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and meet global emission targets by the middle of this century, storage capacity must be scaled up from today’s tens of millions of tons to billions of tons, i.e., gigatonne scale. Continental margins such as the Norwegian continental shelf are particularly well suited for CO₂ storage, and significant investments have been made in Norway, Australia, the USA, and elsewhere to stimulate large-scale CCS and establish a new industry in CO₂ transport and storage.

HPC simulation software for gigatonne storage challenges (Phase 1)

The project “HPC simulation software for the gigatonne storage challenge” aimed to develop a reservoir simulator with advanced functionality to simulate CO₂ storage on a gigatonne scale. A major bottleneck in today’s workflow was dynamic simulation of large-scale CO₂ injection with sufficient resolution and efficiency. Today’s reservoir simulators could not do this, and a reliable gigatonne reservoir simulator was needed to enable scaling up of CO₂ storage.

The project built on close collaboration between NORCE, SINTEF, and Equinor, with a focus on developing the Open Porous Media (OPM) reservoir simulator as a dedicated simulator for CO₂ storage. The code development was based on concepts developed in collaboration between industry, research, and government, with participants such as the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, CarbonNet in Australia, UT Austin Bureau of Economic Geology in the USA, and TNO in the Netherlands.

One of the most important deliverables was the demonstration of HPC performance on supercomputer infrastructure, including cloud-based computing. The simulation tool was made openly available and free of charge to the CCS community, with all necessary user documentation, including tutorials and demonstration videos.

The results from the project enabled operators to assess CO₂ storage more effectively and plan for large-scale field development on a gigatonne scale.

HPC simulation software for gigatonne storage Challenges, Phase 2

Following the success of phase 1, work continued on the project in a second phase, with the aim of accelerating further development of HPC technology for CO₂ storage simulation. In phase 1, a crucial milestone was reached with the release and demonstration of the CO2STORE module in the OPM Flow simulator—a dedicated CO₂ storage option that is easy to use, accurate, and has high performance. The module was successfully used on a regional model of Smeaheia with several million cells.

In phase 2, it was necessary to further improve performance and stability to include dissolution processes and thermal effects in realistic field-scale simulations. The project also aimed to expand the applications to new topics, such as storage in depleted hydrocarbon fields, and to collaborate with other simulator groups to develop an international benchmark for simulating field-scale CO₂ injection.

Close collaboration with relevant user groups strengthened the project’s relevance. In phase 2, the group was expanded to include users from Denmark and the UK, in addition to the Netherlands, USA, and Norway. The goal was to deliver a dedicated CO₂ storage simulator that could become the preferred option for the CCS community.

Gigatonne CO₂ storage is an unproven concept, and a regional perspective is key to ensuring good utilization of infrastructure and storage resources. A particular challenge is modeling interaction with ongoing petroleum activities. A fast and reliable simulator, which was the goal of this project, could provide computational capacity that enabled large-scale simulation of gigatonne CO₂ storage.

A gigaton leap forward

Through the development of a dedicated and open reservoir simulator for CO₂ storage on a metric gigaton scale, these projects have addressed a critical bottleneck in scaling up CCS. By offering a tool capable of simulating large and complex reservoirs with high accuracy and efficiency, they enable the industry to plan and implement large-scale CO₂ storage.

The open availability of the simulator promotes collaboration and further development in the CCS field. This collaboration is essential to meet global climate challenges and realize the potential of CO₂ storage as an effective climate solution.

The projects have also helped build confidence in CO₂ storage technologies by ensuring that the tools used are transparent and thoroughly tested. This is crucial to ensure that decisions are based on reliable data and models. This is important for regulatory authorities, industry, and society in general.

5.3.2.5 Capacity of large-scale CO₂ storage in North Sea sloping aquifers from numerical simulation

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Between 2013 and 2016, Uni Research AS led a project that focused on evaluating the capacity and risk of storing CO₂ in sloping aquifers in the North Sea. The project, funded by the CLIMIT program, had the main objective of developing best practices for numerical simulation of CO₂ storage in such formations. The work was carried out in collaboration with partners in Norway and Canada and included both the development of advanced simulation tools and analyses of geological data from relevant storage sites.

Research and methods

The project addressed several key issues related to large-scale CO₂ storage. One of the most important tasks was to simulate how CO₂ migrates and is trapped in sloping aquifers over long time scales. For this purpose, the project developed and compared different simulation models, including conventional compositional simulators and more simplified models based on vertical equilibrium.

Another important aspect was uncertainty analysis related to storage capacity, including the effects of caprock topography, the reservoir’s geomechanical properties, and boundary conditions. The project implemented statistical methods to reduce computation time and enable extensive sensitivity tests. For example, simulations of the Skade aquifer showed that pressure build-up can be a limiting factor, especially in shallower areas where the initial stress is lower.

The project also developed an improved equation of state for CO₂, which enabled more accurate modeling of the liquid phase and estimates of drying effects in the near-wellbore region. This was crucial to understanding how CO₂ affects the reservoir’s properties and migration patterns over time.

Significance and results

The results from the project have great significance for future CO₂ storage in the North Sea. The simulations have provided insight into how various geological parameters affect storage capacity and safety, and they have shown that key factors such as permeability and formation thickness have a major impact on injection strategies.

The project has also delivered tools for simulating geomechanical effects and vertical flow, which can be applied to relevant storage sites in Norway. This includes open-source software for such evaluations, which can be used by both academic and industrial actors.

Through the development of advanced numerical models and extensive uncertainty analyses, the project has contributed to improving understanding of CO₂ storage in sloping aquifers. The results lay the foundation for safer and more efficient storage operations and underscore the need to adapt injection strategies to local geological conditions.

5.3.2.6 Simulation and optimization of large-scale CO₂ injection at basin scale in the North Sea

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Between 2015 and 2018, SINTEF led a research project that aimed to develop advanced simulation tools for large-scale injection and storage of CO₂ in saline aquifers in the North Sea. The project was funded by the CLIMIT program and carried out in collaboration with researchers from the University of Texas at Austin, who have extensive experience with natural CO₂ deposits as analogs for long-term storage.

Research and results

For CO₂ storage to play a central role in reducing European greenhouse gas emissions, storage activities must be scaled up significantly. This requires reliable estimates of storage capacity and a thorough understanding of the long-term behavior of injected CO₂, including the potential for leakage. Existing simulation tools, primarily developed for the oil and gas industry, have limited ability to address the challenges associated with CO₂ storage.

The project developed specialized mathematical models and simulation tools optimized for CO₂ storage. These tools provide faster and more accurate results compared to traditional 3D simulators. A particular focus was on methods for calculating parameter sensitivity, which is crucial for optimizing injection strategies and integrating monitoring data.

Key activities include

• Analysis of storage capacity and optimal placement of injection points in large saline aquifers.
• Collaboration with the University of Texas to use the Bravo Dome in New Mexico as an analog for long-term storage. This natural CO₂ deposit has been studied for decades and provides valuable insight into long-term processes.
• Development and distribution of open-source code as part of the Matlab Reservoir Simulation Toolbox (MRST). This tool enables researchers and industry to simulate complex storage scenarios with a high degree of accuracy.

Significance and implications

The project has helped to resolve key issues related to injecting hundreds of megatons of CO₂ into large aquifers. The tools and workflows developed in the project provide new opportunities to:

• Evaluate storage capacity at the basin scale and optimize the utilization of pore volume.
• Reduce the risk of leakage through improved modeling and understanding of pressure and flow response.
• Implement cost-effective strategies for large-scale CO₂ storage with a focus on long-term safety.

By integrating data from natural CO₂ fields and advanced numerical methods, the project has also provided valuable knowledge for future storage projects, especially in the North Sea.

5.3.2.7 Monitoring and control of pore pressure for safe and effective CO₂ storage

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The Pre-ACT project, led by SINTEF in collaboration with international partners, was carried out between 2017 and 2020 with the aim of improving monitoring and management of pore pressure in reservoirs for safe and effective CO₂ storage. The project addressed challenges related to capacity, costs, and trust, which are crucial for large-scale deployment of CCS.

Through the project, pressure-driven methods and recommendations, known as Pre-ACT protocols, were developed for cost-effective reservoir monitoring. These helped operators maximize CO₂ storage capacity and translate monitoring data into corrective actions quickly and efficiently. The project included collaboration with key industry partners such as Statoil, Shell, TOTAL, and TAQA, which ensured the relevance and practical application of the methodologies.

Results

• Modeling of pressure build-up and distribution: Development and demonstration of methods for modeling pressure in reservoirs, including uncertainty studies on the Smeaheia field.
• New monitoring techniques: Quantitative methods for measuring pressure and saturation that include uncertainty analyses.
• Compliance tools: Development of a model-monitoring loop for assessing reservoir status.
• Demonstrations and field studies: Included tests at the Svelvik CO₂ Field Lab, which was reopened and used for the first CO₂ injection for data generation.
• Decision support: Recommendations for optimizing data acquisition and developing protocols for decision-making.

The project also organized several stakeholder meetings, including in Trondheim and Brussels, to communicate the project’s relevance to politicians, researchers, and industry partners.

Achievements

Pre-ACT made significant contributions to CCS technology through new methods for monitoring and managing reservoir pressure. These methods help operators ensure safe and permanent CO₂ storage. The tools developed included methods for optimizing data acquisition and compliance protocols, as well as instrumentation and fieldwork at the Svelvik laboratory.

5.3.2.8 CO₂ permeability along fragmented shale interfaces

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Between 2016 and 2019, SINTEF, in collaboration with NTNU, IRIS, and Los Alamos National Laboratory in the USA, carried out a research project to understand how drilling operations affect the integrity of wells in CO₂ storage projects. The project, supported by the Research Council’s CLIMIT program, focused on how fragmentation of shale during drilling can lead to weaknesses in well sealing and possible CO₂ leakage.

Research and innovations

The project investigated in detail how fragmentation of shale affects cement placement and the long-term integrity of the well seal. The work was divided into three main phases:

1. Mapping the extent of damage: Shale samples were subjected to mechanical and chemical influences to simulate the effect of the drilling process. Afterwards, cement was injected to evaluate the quality of the seal.
2. Studies of cement placement: A specially developed X-ray transparent cell was used to investigate cement placement in fragmented shale samples under pressure and controlled flow conditions. This made it possible to understand how cement interacts with different shale structures.
3. Evaluation of surface properties: The last phase focused on how the properties of the shale surface affect the cement’s ability to create a tight seal.

The project showed that cement placement can be inadequate under certain conditions, especially when the fragmentation of shale is extensive. This can lead to poor zonal isolation and risk of leakage.

Significance and implications

The results from the project have provided valuable insight into how drilling operations can be optimized to minimize fragmentation and improve the quality of cement placement. This includes:

• Optimizing drilling parameters such as circulation rate, rotation speed, and drilling angle to reduce fragmentation.
• Developing improved cement formulations that can better seal against fragmented shale surfaces.
• A new framework for predicting leakage risk in wells that penetrate CO₂ storage reservoirs.

Conclusion

The project has strengthened understanding of the interaction between drilling operations, fragmentation of shale, and cement placement. This knowledge is crucial to ensure safe and effective CO₂ storage, especially in wells where fragmentation can be a problem. The results help to reduce the risk of leakage and increase confidence in CO₂ storage.

5.3.2.9 Environmental impacts of leakage from sub-seabed CO₂ storage

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Between 2016 and 2019, NTNU led a research project that investigated the environmental impacts of diffuse leakage from CO₂ storage beneath the seabed. The project, funded by the CLIMIT program, used advanced laboratory experiments to simulate seabed conditions and assess how such leaks can affect geochemistry, metals in sediments, microbial communities, and organisms in deep-sea environments.

Research and results

The project utilized a unique pressure tank, called Karl Erik TiTank, which allowed experiments under pressure conditions equivalent to 300 meters depth. This made it possible to simulate realistic conditions for CO₂ leaks and their effects.

Mobilization of metals

Experiments showed that CO₂ exposure led to significant mobilization of metals such as arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd), especially in sediments with specific geological properties. Lower pH increased mobilization, and transformations between different chemical fractions of metals in the sediments were also observed. Calcareous sediments from the Trondheim Fjord showed greater dissolution than sediments from the Barents Sea.

Effect on macrofauna and microbial activity

Experiments with the deep-sea organism Astarte sp. showed no lethal effects or bioaccumulation of toxic elements at pH 7. However, CO₂ leakage affected the bacterial composition in the sediments, with changes in species diversity and biochemical cycles that can have long-term consequences.

Organic carbon and microbial carbon turnover

The results suggested changes in the loading of organic carbon during CO₂ exposure, which can affect microbial degradation and carbon storage in the marine environment.

Modeling of leakage effects

Numerical models such as TOUGHREACT and BROM were used to simulate chemical profiles and hydrodynamic effects of CO₂ leakage. These models confirmed that pH and dissolved iron and calcium can be good indicators of leakage, and that the effects of a short-term leak can be traced for several days in a limited area around the leak point.

Significance and implications

The results provide new insights into how CO₂ leakage affects sediment chemistry, metal mobilization, and biological activity in marine systems. This is important for understanding the risks and consequences of CO₂ storage beneath the seabed. The project has also provided recommendations for better monitoring methods and compliance with regulations such as OSPAR and the London Protocol.

The project resulted in several scientific articles and master’s theses, as well as dissemination to decision-makers and industry. The results are relevant for the planning and operation of CO₂ storage sites such as Sleipner and Snøhvit, and provide a scientific basis for the development of more effective monitoring strategies.

5.3.2.10 Bayesian monitoring design (BayMoDe)

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Between 2016 and 2020, the University of Bergen led a research project that focused on developing effective monitoring programs for CO₂ storage beneath the seabed. The project, funded by the CLIMIT program, used Bayesian statistics to design monitoring programs that can detect leaks or irregularities in the marine environment, while reducing false alarms.

Research and results

BayMoDe addressed an important challenge in CO₂ storage: distinguishing the signals from a potential leak from the natural variation in the marine environment, such as seasonal changes and acidification. The methods developed include:

• A probabilistic framework for analyzing environmental data and predicting leakage footprints. This framework combines environmental statistics with predictions based on the properties of possible leak sources.
• Machine learning algorithms to classify signals and reduce uncertainty in monitoring data.
• A structure to increase “belief” in a leak based on multiple indications, and to avoid false alarms by ensuring that individual data deviations do not automatically trigger extensive measures.

The project collaborated with international partners, including Plymouth Marine Laboratory and Heriot-Watt University, and contributed to the Horizon2020 project STEMM-CCS. A release experiment in the Goldeneye area off Scotland in 2019 provided valuable data that was used in the development of environmental monitoring tools.

Significance and implications

The BayMoDe project has contributed to increased Norwegian activity in environmental monitoring for CO₂ storage and laid the foundation for further research through the establishment of the ACTOM project. The results have also strengthened Norwegian expertise in documentation and monitoring, with an approach that can be used in all types of monitoring programs.

By reducing uncertainty and improving monitoring procedures, BayMoDe contributes to increased confidence in CO₂ storage as a safe and effective climate solution. The project has published over 10 peer-reviewed articles and trained a PhD candidate in applied mathematics specializing in machine learning for environmental monitoring.

5.3.2.11 Induced-seismicity geomechanics for controlled CO₂ storage in the North Sea (IGCCS)

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Between 2017 and 2020, the IGCCS project was carried out to improve understanding of induced seismicity and geomechanics related to CO₂ storage in the North Sea. The project, led by NGI, brought together international partners from Europe and Australia, including NORSAR, the University of Oslo, the National Oceanography Centre, and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. The goal was to link geomechanical effects to micro-seismic monitoring and develop methods to ensure safe and effective CO₂ storage.

Research and innovations

The project investigated geomechanical and seismic processes through advanced laboratory tests, numerical simulations, and field-based studies. Representative geology from the North Sea was defined as the basis for all tests and simulations. The work included:

• Laboratory tests: 16 triaxial tests that measured acoustic emission (AE) and geomechanical properties from rock samples. This included samples from the North Sea and analog materials. The tests revealed how fluid saturation and temperature influences alter rock behavior.
• Numerical simulations: Development of models for poro-thermoelastic processes and fracture propagation, which showed how CO₂ injection affects stress and strain distribution in the reservoirs.
• Microseismic data: Generation of synthetic data to understand the mechanisms behind slow seismicity, with a focus on similarities between natural and induced earthquakes.

The results showed that temperature changes from cold CO₂ injection can have a significant effect on deep layers and caprocks. Microseismic signals were related to specific stresses and fracture processes, which contributes to better monitoring and risk analysis.

Significance and implications

IGCCS has helped to build a solid knowledge base for future CO₂ storage projects. The project has:

• Updated industrial databases with new experimental data on geomechanical properties.
• Recommended specialized laboratory tests and advanced simulation methods to handle thermal effects in caprocks, especially relevant for deep storage sites such as the Aurora project in the North Sea.
• Developed new methods to identify and control potentially hazardous seismic events during CO₂ injection.

Conclusion

IGCCS has strengthened understanding of how induced seismicity and geomechanics can be used to ensure safe and effective CO₂ storage. The project’s results support the development of commercial storage projects in the North Sea and lay the foundation for further research in monitoring and risk analysis of CO₂ storage sites.

5.3.2.12 Prediction of CO₂ leakage from reservoirs during large-scale storage

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Between 2018 and 2021, the Institute for Energy Technology (IFE) carried out a research project that focused on understanding the formation and significance of pipe structures (also known as “chimneys”) in sedimentary basins for safe CO₂ storage. The project investigated how these structures, which can act as leakage pathways, are formed and affect storage integrity in CO₂ repositories such as the Utsira Formation in the North Sea.

Research and results

Pipe structures are vertical channels in the caprock that are often associated with previously high pore pressure in reservoirs. These structures can be formed by viscous deformations or hydraulic fracturing of the sediments, and they are common in sedimentary basins globally.

The project used advanced numerical models and geological data from the North Sea to simulate the formation and evolution of pipe structures. The results showed that:

• Pipe structures can form under realistic conditions for CO₂ storage.
• The presence of pipe structures can significantly increase the risk of CO₂ leakage.
• Glacial processes and overpressure from sedimentary layers can contribute to the formation of pipe structures.

Significance and recommendations

• Monitoring of the seabed: The project recommends that the seabed above pipe structures be monitored, especially where they are located near CO₂ repositories, to ensure that they do not pose a leakage threat.
• Improved understanding of geological processes: The project has contributed new insights into how glacial processes and overpressure from sedimentary layers contribute to the formation of pipe structures.
• Open source: Numerical codes developed in the project have been made available as open source, which supports further research and industrial application.

The project has strengthened understanding of CO₂ storage integrity by mapping risk factors related to pipe structures and proposing strategies for monitoring and risk management.

5.3.2.13 Use of noble gas signatures in monitoring systems for offshore CO₂ storage

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Between 2018 and 2022, the University of Oslo led the ICO2P project, a research project that explored the use of noble gases to monitor CO₂ storage sites. The project, funded by the CLIMIT program, combined innovative technology and advanced geochemical analyses to develop cost-effective and robust methods to verify the safety of CO₂ storage in the long term.

Research and innovation

ICO2P introduced a new approach to monitoring by exploiting the unique isotopic signatures of noble gases. Using a portable mass spectrometer, miniRUEDI, the researchers collected real-time data on the noble gas content in gas production and CO₂ injection lines. This tool allowed detailed analyses of gas composition, which provides precise information on source-specific properties of injected and natural gas.

The project included extensive field studies at CO₂ capture plants such as the Technology Centre Mongstad and Melkøya (Snøhvit), as well as test injections at the Svelvik field laboratory. The results showed that noble gases can be used to trace the origin of the gas and distinguish between anthropogenic and natural sources. The project also documented how injected CO₂ changes signature through interaction with geological reservoirs over time.

Results and significance

ICO2P has demonstrated how noble gas data can improve the reliability of CO₂ storage monitoring by enabling:

• Accurate identification of leak sources by differentiating between anthropogenic and natural gases.
• Cost reduction by utilizing inherent noble gas signatures instead of artificially added tracers.
• Improved understanding of gas behavior in geological reservoirs, which increases storage safety.

In the summer of 2020, the project collected sediment samples from the seabed near the Aurora CO₂ storage site, and the analysis results contribute to the design of specific monitoring schemes for different CO₂ sources. This research is not only relevant for the Norwegian continental shelf, but can also be applied globally to support the development of CCS as a key tool for climate mitigation.

Conclusion

The ICO2P project (film) has laid the foundation for a new generation of monitoring methods that combine innovative technology with geochemical expertise. The results strengthen confidence in CO₂ storage as a safe and effective solution.

5.3.2.14 Techniques for identifying safe CO₂ storage

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The COTEC project (2019–2023), led by the University of Oslo, was an interdisciplinary research project that used a natural field laboratory in Utah, USA, to study the migration and storage of CO₂ in areas with well-mapped geology. The project has been highly relevant for quality assurance of CO₂ storage initiatives on the Norwegian continental shelf, especially in areas such as the Smeaheia and Johansen prospects.

COTEC brought together Norwegian universities and research institutions (UiO, UNIS, NGI, NORSAR) with four American universities, and the project also included a comprehensive education program with PhD and Postdoc positions as well as MSc students.

Results

• Geological analysis of CO₂ leakage mechanisms: The study of natural leaks in Utah provided insight into how geological and geomechanical conditions, such as fracture zones and permeable rocks, control the flow of CO₂ through tight rock layers.
• Seismic data acquisition and analysis: The project developed methods to identify low-velocity zones, which are linked to highly permeable areas with increased CO₂ emissions from the ground. These zones were mapped using 2D seismic and high-resolution studies.
• Modeling of CO₂ flow: 3D models were used to simulate geophysical signatures of CO₂ flow along fault zones. These models help to assess potential risks and design measures for commercial storage projects.
• Knowledge sharing: Results from the project were presented at seminars and conferences, and all peer-reviewed articles were published as open access to reach both research communities and industry players.

Achieved effects

COTEC has contributed to a better understanding of the complexity of fracture zones and the risks associated with CO₂ storage. The findings are of great importance for the development of safe and effective storage methods, especially for projects in the North Sea. The project demonstrated how natural leakage sites can serve as analogs for CO₂ storage beneath the seabed, which provides valuable knowledge to reduce risk in future projects.

5.3.2.15 Accelerating CSEM technology for efficient and quantitative CO₂ monitoring

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SINTEF started a project in 2019 that sought to develop and demonstrate cost-effective methods for monitoring CO₂ storage using Controlled Source Electro-Magnetics (CSEM). The project, funded by the CLIMIT program, addresses the need for more affordable and accurate monitoring tools to achieve safe and reliable geological storage of CO₂, in line with national and international requirements.

Research and methods

CSEM technology offers a complement to traditional seismic surveys by measuring resistivity and anisotropy in the subsurface. This provides important additional information that can improve the interpretation of pressure and saturation changes caused by CO₂ injection, thereby reducing uncertainties in the data basis. The project focuses on developing:

• Optimal design of surveys and interpretation of time-lapse data.
• Efficient simulation of how infrastructure affects CSEM data.
• Integration of CSEM with other geophysical data for improved interpretation.

By using realistic offshore case studies from the Norwegian continental shelf, including Smeaheia, the project also investigates how CSEM can be combined with seismic data to achieve higher precision in monitoring. The project also includes the development of methods to address the lower resolution of CSEM compared to seismic, and how this affects temporal and spatial surveys.

Results and significance

During the project’s first year, several articles have been published, including studies that explore the potential for CSEM at Smeaheia and how resistivity can be used as an indicator of saturation changes during CO₂ injection. These results have been disseminated through conference presentations, extended abstracts, and webinars, which has increased awareness of the role of CSEM technology in CO₂ monitoring.

The project contributes to the development of monitoring strategies that are not only more cost-effective, but also provide increased safety and better public acceptance of CCS technology. By reducing reliance on expensive and extensive seismic surveys, CSEM offers a sustainable solution for large-scale CO₂ storage.

The project shows how innovative use of CSEM can help improve quantitative characterization of storage complexes and optimize geophysical surveys for CO₂ storage. By focusing on the combination of CSEM and seismic, and developing new methods for interpretation and simulation, the project lays the foundation for more efficient and safe solutions for future storage projects in Norway and internationally.

5.3.2.16 CSEM for monitoring CO₂ storage

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SINTEF, in collaboration with Allton and TotalEnergies, is leading the ongoing project “COSMOS” to develop and implement new monitoring technologies for CO₂ storage. The project investigates how marine Controlled Source Electromagnetic (CSEM) technologies can be used as a cost-effective alternative to traditional seismic surveys. This is particularly relevant for the safe storage of CO₂ according to international rules and standards.

CSEM technology was originally developed for oil and gas exploration, but has shown potential for CO₂ storage. The technique exploits the contrast between the resistance of injected CO₂ and the saline pore fluid in the reservoir. COSMOS focuses on evaluating how CSEM can monitor the CO₂ plume in the reservoir and detect leaks. The project was initially linked to the Aurora storage complex, which is part of the Longship project. However, studies showed that CSEM sensitivity for Aurora, due to its depth, is likely too low. This led to further exploration of the possibility of using a well as an antenna to enhance electromagnetic signals, before the focus shifted to the Smeaheia model.

The key activities in the project include:

• Development of detailed Aurora models for CSEM sensitivity studies.
• Improvements in software for 3D modeling and inversion of CSEM data.
• Advanced model studies to investigate the use of wells as antennas for deeper storage sites.
• Creation of a Smeaheia model and sensitivity studies for this area.

COSMOS combines the expertise of research institutions, industry partners, and technology providers, and the project is supported by an advisory scientific panel with national and international experts. The project’s goal is to reduce the uncertainty associated with monitoring CO₂ storage and thus contribute to safer and more cost-effective climate solutions.

5.3.2.17 ENSURE – Effective monitoring for long-term stability and transparent assessment of seismic hazard

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The ENSURE project, led by NORSAR in collaboration with international partners, explores advanced methods for microseismic monitoring of CO₂ storage. The purpose of this ongoing project is to ensure long-term stability and prevent leaks through reliable monitoring of subsurface deformations. The project seeks to improve current methods for detecting, interpreting, and managing risks related to CO₂ storage, while strengthening public confidence in the technology.

Microseismic monitoring is the most effective method for detecting small, rapid deformations in reservoirs, which may indicate potential leakage or unwanted CO₂ spread. ENSURE develops high-performance and cost-effective monitoring systems, including through the use of new technology such as fiber optic sensors. The project compares data from various storage facilities in Canada, France, Norway, the UK, and the USA to establish tailored monitoring methods.

The main activities in the project include:

• Development of advanced analysis tools for long-term monitoring of reservoir integrity.
• Testing and optimization of traffic light systems, which provide clear guidelines for managing seismic activity. This includes measures such as reduced injection rate at the yellow level or temporary shutdown at the red level.
• Analysis of public perception of CO₂ storage, through extensive surveys and economic experiments in Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, the UK, and Canada.

ENSURE also has a strong focus on communication. The project develops strategies to communicate complex technological concepts to different target groups. These strategies are based on empirical studies of how the public perceives the risks and benefits of carbon capture and storage (CCS). The results help to increase confidence in CCS technology.

5.3.2.18 Real-time monitoring for safe permanent CO₂ storage

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Geomec Engineering AS carried out an innovative project to develop advanced tools that enabled real-time monitoring and optimization of CO₂ storage in the subsurface. The project addressed the need for cost-effective and safe storage of large quantities of captured CO₂.

Storing CO₂ in deep aquifers, abandoned oil and gas fields, or producing fields requires accurate monitoring of injection processes and storage conditions. If CO₂ leaks from the reservoir, the storage attempt will be unsuccessful, and costly measures will have to be implemented. Through the project, Geomec developed software that monitors the reservoir’s response during injection operations in real time, which contributes to safe and permanent storage conditions.

The solution supported various storage options, including deep aquifers, abandoned fields, and EOR, where injection of CO₂ increased oil recovery while CO₂ was stored permanently.

By understanding how geological formations react immediately during CO₂ injection, operators can tailor, monitor, and optimize the injection process. This increases the safety and capacity for permanent CO₂ storage in the reservoirs.

5.3.2.19 CO₂ DataShare: A collaborative platform for sharing CCS data

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The CO₂ DataShare project, led by SINTEF, is focused on establishing a comprehensive platform for sharing crucial data related to CCS. This initiative has been supported in two phases by the CLIMIT program, highlighting its importance in advancing CCS technology.

Phase 1: Building the foundation (2017-)

The initial phase concentrated on creating the groundwork for a robust data-sharing platform. Key achievements included:

• Developing a prototype platform to showcase the feasibility of sharing standardized datasets from diverse CCS projects.
• Establishing data processing and quality assurance procedures to ensure consistency and reliability.
• Fostering international collaboration through workshops and meetings, promoting knowledge exchange among researchers, industry, and authorities.
• Identifying key research questions to guide data utilization and support targeted research and development.

Phase 2: Expanding the vision (2024-2026)

With the foundation established, the second phase aims to expand the platform’s capabilities and impact. Key objectives include:

• Broadening the scope to encompass data from the entire CCS chain, including capture and transport, in addition to storage.
• Enhancing user experience by simplifying data sharing and incorporating tools for data inspection and visualization.
• Creating a user forum to facilitate knowledge exchange and support benchmark studies and competitions using shared datasets.
• Investigating synergies with other data-sharing initiatives like the European Open Science Cloud (EOSC) to increase visibility and interoperability.
• Publishing new CCS datasets from Norwegian and international initiatives, accompanied by active dissemination through blogs, webinars, and social media.

Impact and significance

The CO₂ DataShare project is making substantial contributions to the CCS field. By fostering collaboration and knowledge exchange through data sharing, it accelerates innovation. It enables the assessment and replication of research and industry practices, validating findings and ensuring quality and reliability. The project also reduces costs and risks by sharing lessons learned, optimizing planning, and preventing costly errors. Furthermore, it builds competence by providing quality-assured data for educating future CCS experts. Finally, it strengthens international collaboration by creating a global network of CCS advocates to collectively advance CCS deployment.

5.3.3 Further work on monitoring and simulation

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• Improved monitoring technology: Continue the development of more accurate, sensitive, and cost-effective sensors and monitoring methods to detect potential leaks and monitor CO₂ migration in real time. This may include the use of fiber optic cables, distributed acoustic sensors, and advanced geophysical techniques.
• More realistic simulation models: Develop more sophisticated models that take into account complex factors that affect CO₂ migration, including geochemical reactions, multiphase flow, geomechanical effects, and uncertainty in data.
• Integration of data and models: Improve methods for integrating data from various sources, such as seismic surveys, well data, and geochemical analyses, to provide a more holistic picture of CO₂ storage and reduce uncertainty in simulations.
• Machine learning and artificial intelligence: Explore the potential for using machine learning and artificial intelligence to analyze large datasets, improve the accuracy of simulations, and optimize monitoring strategies.

5.3.4 Conclusion

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Monitoring and simulation are essential tools for ensuring safe and effective CO₂ storage. Through the CLIMIT program, important progress has been made in the development of monitoring technology and simulation models, but further work is needed to improve accuracy, reduce uncertainty, and optimize the CO₂ storage process. Continuous research and innovation in monitoring and simulation will be crucial to realizing the potential of CCS as an effective climate measure.

5.4 CLIMIT program category – CCS wells

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For effective and safe CO₂ storage, it is critical to ensure the integrity and functionality of the wells used for CO₂ injection. The wells are the link between the surface and the storage reservoir, and any faults or leaks in the wells can compromise the entire storage process. CLIMIT supports research that addresses these challenges in the CCS wells program category.

5.4.1 Challenges

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• Well integrity: The wells must be designed and constructed to withstand the corrosive environment and high pressures associated with long-term CO₂ injection. Material degradation, corrosion, and fractures in the well construction can lead to leaks and reduce storage security.
• Cement integrity: The cement used to seal the well and isolate the various formations must maintain its integrity over time. Cement degradation and cracks can lead to CO₂ leaks along the well.
• Wellhead equipment: The wellhead equipment, which includes valves and control systems, must be reliable and functional to ensure safe and controlled injection of CO₂. Failures in the wellhead equipment can lead to uncontrolled releases or operational shutdowns.
• Monitoring: Effective methods are needed to monitor the condition and integrity of the well, to identify potential problems early and take measures to prevent leaks.
  

5.4.2 The status on CCS well research

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Several CLIMIT-funded projects have worked to improve understanding of well challenges in CO₂ storage and developed solutions to address the challenges:

5.4.2.1 Polymer resins for repairing leaks in CO₂ wells

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Between 2016 and 2020, WellCemm AS led a project that focused on the development and testing of polymer resins to seal leaks in CO₂ storage wells. The aim was to find alternatives to traditional cementing, which has limitations in repairing cracks and leakage pathways in wells. ThermaSet® and EnvoSet®, temperature-activated polymer resins, were developed and tested as environmentally friendly and robust solutions to stop leaks.

Research and results

The project showed that both ThermaSet® and EnvoSet® could be effectively sealed into cracks of various sizes (from 72 µm to 500 µm) and provide a lasting seal. Tests under realistic conditions with supercritical CO₂ and CO₂-saturated water over 93 days confirmed that the resins retained their sealing properties and showed no measurable leaks.

Long-term experiments under simulated downhole conditions (100°C and 500 bar) were also performed to evaluate mechanical properties after exposure to CO₂-saltwater and pure saltwater. Although reductions in strength were observed after 1–6 months of exposure, the results showed that the resins stabilized and retained high strength over time.

Innovations and implications

• Environmentally friendly development: EnvoSet®, an environmentally friendly resin, was commercialized as a sustainable solution for CO₂ wells.
• New test method: The CAPT (Consistency under Applied Pressure Test) method was introduced to predict the curing process under downhole conditions, which improves the application of the resins in wells.
• Increased well integrity: By using the resins, leaks from wells can be limited. This reduces environmental impact and increases the safety of CO₂ storage.

5.4.2.2 REcycled well PLUGging material to improve the outcome of CO₂ storage in geological reservoirs (RePlug)

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In 2017, ReStone AS led a project to develop and test RePlug®, an innovative cement additive for use in Plugging and Abandonment (P&A) of CO₂ storage wells. The project focused on improving cement plugs by increasing their lifespan and resistance to CO₂, which is crucial for safe and long-term CO₂ storage in geological formations.

Research and results

RePlug® was developed as a forward-looking, environmentally friendly additive based on Portland G-systems cement. It was tested and validated by SINTEF Petroleum AS under relevant pressure and temperature conditions. The results showed that RePlug® has unique properties such as:

• Self-healing and CO₂ resistance: When the cement is exposed to CO₂, the porosity is reduced by up to 90%, which improves the seal and prevents leakage.
• Ductile properties: RePlug® deforms upon crushing instead of failing brittlely, which increases robustness.
• Reduced CO₂ footprint: Production has a lower carbon footprint than ordinary Portland G cement.
• Slight expansion during curing: This prevents shrinkage and ensures stronger bonding to steel and formations.

These properties make RePlug® particularly suitable for wells that cross potential CO₂ storage formations, and improve the possibility of success in carbon storage projects.

Implications

RePlug® represents a breakthrough in technology for P&A and CO₂ storage. The product can accelerate the implementation of CCS projects by reducing the risk of leakage while improving the sustainability of cementing processes. The project has also contributed to increased expertise in geochemistry, petrology, and well plugging.

5.4.2.3 Ultrasound to verify that the cementing of the annulus is impermeable

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The project, led by Equanostic AS, developed a software solution called VRI to improve the verification of cementing in wells used for CO₂ storage. Safe storage of CO₂ requires that the cementing around the well’s steel pipe forms an impermeable barrier to prevent leaks. Traditional methods for verifying this using ultrasound are complex and can be inaccurate.

The VRI solution analyzes ultrasound data using advanced algorithms and machine learning. This provides a more accurate assessment of the cement’s integrity. The system can identify whether there is solid material or liquid behind the steel pipe and estimate potential leakage pathways. This gives operators better tools to assess the condition of the well and take necessary measures.

The project tested VRI on over 20 wells in the North Sea and the Barents Sea, with positive results. The improved verification of the cementing contributes to increased safety in CO₂ storage and reduces the risk of environmental damage and financial losses. The solution has received great interest from the industry and can accelerate the safe implementation of CO₂ storage as an effective climate solution.

5.4.2.4 Studies of interfaces between fluids during cementing of CCS wells

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The project (2017–2020), led by SINTEF, focused on improving the cementing process for CO₂ storage wells by developing methods to track interfaces between fluids during cementing. Good cementing is crucial for well integrity, as cement acts as a barrier against leakage of stored CO₂. This is particularly important in CCS wells, where high injection pressures and the reactive nature of CO₂ place stringent demands on the materials.

The project identified a significant knowledge gap: while research has previously focused on the material properties of cement, there has been little attention to how cement is actually placed in the well. Defects that can occur during cementing, such as incompletely filled cement or channels, can pose a leakage risk over time.

Research and results

Through experimental trials and numerical modeling, the project developed new methods for tracking fluid interfaces using small particles (“tags”). These particles can be used to visualize the 3D geometry of the cement front and identify defects such as pockets and channels in the cement.

The results include:

• Development of a new conceptual approach for tracking fluid interfaces in wells.
• Design and use of custom-designed experimental setups, including a Hele-Shaw cell, to study fluid flow and particle dynamics.
• Numerical simulations that validate the effectiveness of particle tracking under relevant well conditions.
• Publication of 11 peer-reviewed articles and presentations at 16 conferences, with significant attention from both academia and industry.

Significance and implications

The project has the potential to improve the cementing process in CCS wells by reducing uncertainty and the risk of leakage. The technology can also contribute to better monitoring of well barriers.

5.4.2.5 Cost-effective and robust CO₂ injection wells (IntoWell)

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The IntoWell project (2021–2024), led by Equinor in collaboration with SINTEF, is working to develop innovative solutions for future CO₂ storage wells. The goal is to ensure robust and cost-effective design that supports large-scale implementation of CCS, including the Longship project.

The project focuses on improving well integrity through material optimization, multi-physics simulations, and risk management. Geological storage of CO₂ requires injection wells that can withstand extreme pressure and temperature conditions without compromising safety or functionality. IntoWell combines laboratory data with numerical models to develop a toolbox that supports engineers in designing and evaluating wells more accurately.

This toolbox contains:

• Improved understanding of material properties: Insight into how well materials behave under extreme conditions, which provides a basis for better material selection.
• Experimental database: Data from laboratory tests covering the mechanical properties of various materials, providing engineers with valuable references for design.
• Multi-physics simulations: Tools that evaluate mechanical integrity and optimize injection strategies, which reduces risk and improves operational reliability.

Expected effects

• Increased well integrity: Reduced risk of leakage and environmental damage.
• Cost reductions: Lower construction and operating costs for injection wells.
• Scientific progress: New knowledge about materials and simulation tools.

5.4.2.6 Well control for CO₂ wells

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This ongoing project, led by eDrilling AS, focuses on developing software and services for the safe drilling of CO₂ wells in areas with existing CO₂ storage. The project addresses critical knowledge gaps related to well control when drilling into CO₂ storage reservoirs.

Full-scale CO₂ storage requires extensive analysis and understanding of the reservoir and formation to eliminate the risk of underground leaks. The project is developing qualified software that helps operators maintain and restore well control in CO₂ wells. The tool is used both for planning and risk assessment before drilling operations, as well as a system for anomaly detection during the drilling itself.

By addressing risks such as CO₂ kicks and uncontrolled blowouts, as well as cooling effects caused by the Joule-Thomson effect, the project helps to reduce the risk of accidents and environmental damage. The development of methodologies to assess the suitability of drilling fluids and simulate complex drilling conditions is central to this work.

The project’s results will support the scaling up of global ambitions for geological CO₂ storage by enabling safer drilling operations in CO₂ storage areas.

5.4.2.7 The eXRES project – Development of an external resistivity meter for “logging while coring”

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The project is ongoing, led by CoreAll AS, and focuses on developing an external resistivity meter for real-time logging of formation resistivity during both drilling and core drilling, aimed at CCS. The project addresses the need for better documentation of the reservoir’s geological properties for safe CO₂ storage.

CoreAll has previously developed the “Intelligent Coring System” (ICS), which includes sensors for resistivity and gamma radiation, but the existing sensor only measures during core drilling. To optimize CoDril™ technology, which combines drilling and core drilling with the same tool and saves time and costs, the eXRES project is developing an external resistivity meter that enables continuous measurement during both operations.

The technology is expected to reduce operating time by 3–6 days per CCS exploration well. This will result in significant savings in fuel consumption and emissions of CO₂ and NO_x. In addition, it will improve the characterization of reservoirs, which is essential for safe and effective CO₂ storage.

5.4.3 CLIMIT-funded well integrity projects

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Well integrity is a crucial factor for safe and effective storage of CO₂ in the subsurface. Wells act as bridges between the surface and the reservoirs where CO₂ is stored, and their integrity determines whether the stored gas remains securely trapped or whether it can leak back into the atmosphere. To meet the stringent requirements of carbon capture and storage, several projects have been initiated to improve well integrity through innovative methods and materials.

5.4.3.1 Improving CO₂ well integrity through studies of materials from Ketzin wells

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This project was led by SINTEF and aimed to maximize the learning potential from Ketzin, Germany’s first pilot plant for CO₂ storage. By analyzing materials recovered from wells and comparing them with data from logging and monitoring tools, the researchers sought to understand when, where, why, and how materials fail in a CO₂ well environment. Through these studies, vulnerabilities in well materials were identified and strategies were developed to improve integrity during CO₂ storage. The project contributed to increased understanding of material properties and their behavior in contact with CO₂.

5.4.3.2 XMAS – Methods for continuous remote monitoring of the integrity of CO₂ wells

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The XMAS project, led by Aker Solutions AS, focused on developing non-invasive methods for continuous monitoring of well integrity. A major challenge in CO₂ storage is the lack of cost-effective methods for assessing the integrity of plugged and abandoned wells, especially on the Norwegian continental shelf.

The project combined numerical studies, experiments, and engineering to investigate how various signals can be used to evaluate well integrity without having to enter the well. By studying the transmission of seismic and electromagnetic signals along the well’s construction materials, the team identified potential methods for remote sensing. XMAS thus helped to build significant expertise in non-invasive well monitoring and established new collaborations with industry partners and research groups globally.

5.4.4 Development and testing of new cement types for improved well integrity in CCS

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The CEMENTEGRITY project, led by the Institute for Energy Technology (IFE), attempted to develop and test materials that provide better sealing of wells exposed to stored CO₂ in underground reservoirs. The goal was to create sealing materials that prevent leaks, are self-repairing if leaks occur, and have a smaller environmental footprint than current solutions.

Through experimental research on various sealing compounds and support from numerical modeling, the project identified critical properties that ensure the long-term integrity of well sealing materials. These findings can be used to develop new materials for CO₂ storage, thus ensuring the long-term integrity of the storage reservoirs.

5.4.5 Well barrier integrity test unit – BTU

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This ongoing project, led by Vedeld AS, aims to develop a well barrier test unit (BTU) that enables testing and monitoring of subsea CO₂ injection wells in a safe and cost-effective manner. In today’s subsea wells, testing of the well barriers is performed by applying pressure to sections inside the well through a service line in a subsea umbilical. This is a significant cost driver. The BTU project seeks to eliminate the need for such a service line by integrating the test unit directly into the CO₂ injection well with an electrical vertical Christmas tree (eVXT). This innovative concept paves the way for complete removal of the umbilical, reduces costs and environmental impact, and improves well integrity during CO₂ storage.

5.4.6 Significance of well integrity projects for CO₂ storage

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Well integrity projects play a crucial role in ensuring safe and effective storage of CO₂ in the subsurface. By addressing challenges related to material failure, development of new sealing materials, implementation of non-invasive monitoring methods, and innovative testing of well barriers, they help to strengthen confidence in CCS technologies.

5.4.7 Further work on CO₂ wells

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• Improved well integrity: Continue research on materials and design for wells that are more resistant to corrosion and degradation in CO₂ environments. This includes the development of new materials, such as special steel types and polymers, as well as improved methods for monitoring the condition of the well over time.
• Optimization of cement technology: Further develop cement mixtures with improved properties for CO₂ wells, such as increased resistance to corrosion, cracking, and permeability. This also includes research on new methods for placing and monitoring cement in the well.
• Advanced wellhead equipment: Develop more reliable and functional wellhead equipment, including sensors and monitoring systems to ensure safe and controlled injection of CO₂. This may include technology to control injection rates and pressures more precisely, as well as technology to monitor the condition of the well in real time.
• Integrated well modeling: Develop integrated models that combine well integrity, cement analysis, and geomechanical modeling to provide a comprehensive risk assessment for CO₂ injection wells.

5.4.8 Conclusion

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Well integrity is a critical factor for safe and effective CO₂ storage. Through the CLIMIT program, significant progress has been made in understanding and addressing challenges related to well construction, material selection, cement technology, and monitoring. Further work is needed to improve well integrity, optimize design and operation, and reduce the risk of leaks. Continuous research and innovation in well technology will be crucial to implementing CO₂ storage on a large scale and contributing to achieving climate goals.

Environment

6.1 CLIMIT has contributed to increased knowledge on amine emissions

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In 2008, CLIMIT awarded funds for the first time to a project examining the impact of amines on health and the environment. The Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) gathered Norwegian expertise and reviewed the available literature in the field. The background to this was a workshop on this topic the previous year with participants from industry, the authorities and research institutes.

The push for this is that carbon capture with amines will result in small emissions to the air of amines and degradation products through the cleaned flue gas released from chimney stacks. At the capture facility itself and in the atmosphere, amines can among other possibilities react to form nitrosamines and nitramines, some of which are known to potentially increase the risk of cancer [1].

The 2007 workshop was the start of a number of national and international research projects in the field of amines and health and the environment. The knowledge basis and methodology of assessing and following up emissions to air of amines and degradation products were developed and demonstrated. The aim was that emissions to the air from amine-based carbon capture could be assessed in the same way as other industrial emissions.

Below, research activities in the area of amines and health and the environment will be described, with a starting point in the CLIMIT programme and with reference to Norwegian CCS initiatives. Other international activities and initiatives will not be discussed.

6.2 Amine emissions became a topic in 2006

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Amine emissions related to carbon capture was discussed in a study by the The Norwegian Energy Regulatory Authority (NVE) [2] from 2006. The report stated that the cleaned flue gas from a gas-fired power plant could contain 1 to 4 ppmv of amines, and that this would amount to annual amine emission to the air of between 40 to 160 tonnes. In 2007, amine emissions to the air were a topic for a workshop at NILU with participation from industry, the authorities and research institutes. Here it was noted that “The knowledge level of emissions to the air and the effect of emissions of this sort of substance is low” [3].

6.3 First CLIMIT award in 2008

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The NILU project from 2008, “Effects on health and the environment of emissions to the air of amines as a result of carbon capture (1891217)” [4], was the first CLIMIT project in this area. The project had the Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH), the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) and the Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) as partners. Based on data from the available literature, a worst case study [5] was carried out, which concluded that the maximum emissions of amines was in the same range as emissions that were estimated in the NVE study from 2006 [2].

It was also noted that there was little data about amines relevant to carbon capture. This kick-started a range of projects. NILU continued the work through the project “Amine Emissions during Carbon Capture Phase II (199874)”, together with NIVA, NINA, the University of Oslo (UiO) and the former University for Nature and Biosciences (UMB) at NMBU. NILU and its partners methodology and dispersion modelling have since then formed the basis for the Technology Centre Mongstad’s (TCM) assessment and application to the Norwegian Environment Agency in relation to various capture chemicals that have been tested at TCM since the facility opened in 2012.

In the SINTEF ACT project “Sustainable Operation of post-combustion Capture plant (332511)”, which began in 2021, further work was carried out on amine emissions to the air with the overall goal of developing technologies for emissions control, as well as harmonising regulations of amine-based capture facilities.

6.4 Amine degradation is a core topic

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As the health risks are related to nitrosamines and nitramines, the degradation  of amines in the atmosphere will be a core topic. Together with national and international partners between 2009-2011, UiO carried out three vital CLIMIT projects: “Atmospheric Degradation of Amines (193438, 201604 and 208122)”. The projects investigated a total of eight amines relevant for carbon capture experimentally at the European Photo Reactor (EUPHORE) in Valencia, Spain. Further investigations at the EUPHORE reactor was carried out by UiO in the “Atmospheric Chemistry of Amines and Related Compounds (244055)” (2015-2019) project. Quantum chemistry calculations are used to quantify the degradation products, such as nitrosamines and nitramines. This is essential data making dispersion modelling and assessments in relation to, for example, TCM’s operations application to the Norwegian Environment Agency and for similar permits for the Brevik CCS capture project and Hafslund Celsio’s project at Klemetsrud.

In an amine-based CO₂ capture plant, amines are degraded during operation. In the Equinor project “Flue gas degradation of amines (196051)”, the influence of oxygen, NO_X and temperature on amine degradation was investigated in a laboratory rig. This may prove to be a good method for uncovering which degradation components a specific capture chemical can provide during operation. This method was later refined by SINTEF. The rig was the subject of further development, and was used by the participants in the technology qualification for the planned fullscale project at Mongstad (CCM). This project was cancelled in 2013.

6.5 How can we reduce amine emissions to the air?

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CLIMIT has also supported measures to reduce amine emissions to the air. These include the projects “Reduction of emissions from amine-based CO₂ capture plant» (201607)” at SLB Capturi (formerly Aker Clean Carbon) and “Reduction of amines UV-light (210239)” at NTNU. In 2016, “Monitoring and mitigation of aerosol related solvent emissions in post combustion capture (AEROSOLVE)” began, led by SINTEF, and investigated aerosol-based emissions of amines to the air. The project included tests at SINTEF’s Tiller facility and at Technology Centre Mongstad (TCM).

Effects of amines, nitrosamines and nitramines in the natural environment are the topic of two CLIMIT projects “Environmental fate studies of CO₂ capture solvents toward risk assessment (203095)” at SINTEF, and NIVA’s “Future Drinking Water Levels of Nitrosamines and Nitramines near a CO2 Capture Plant (FuNitr) (336357)”. NIVA’s FuNitr project and “Sustainable OPEration of post-combustion Capture plants (332511)” (SINTEF) were both active in 2024.

6.6 Recommendation for content in the air and drinking water

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On behalf of the Norwegian Environment Agency in 2011, the NIPH assessed the health effects of emissions of amines, nitrosamines and nitramines. The conclusion was a recommendation that the total amount of nistrosamines and nitramines should not exceed 0.3 nanograms per cubic metre of air or 4 nanograms per litre of drinking water. In 2023, the Norwegian Environment Agency requested a new review from NIPH which concluded that previous recommendations should remain in place [1].

An overview of other studies under the auspices of Norway was drawn up by Gassnova [6]. This includes the comprehensive process of technology qualification to the fullscale project at Mongstad. TCM has developed a similar overview of studies focussing on amine components [7].

6.7 Conclusion

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The knowledge basis and methodology for assessing and following up emissions has been developed and demonstrated. This is to say that emissions to the air from amine-based carbon capture can be assessed by authorities in the same way as other industrial emissions. This methodology is amine-, facility- and site-specific. Different amines have different degradation products, the different facilities’ design and the location of where the CCS facility will be built will have a specific topography, weather patterns and background levels of pollution. In 2024, 16 years after CLIMIT gave the green light to the first project in the field of amines and health and the environment, there are two active projects in the portfolio. This indicates that it is still possible to improve and expand the knowledge basis within this area.

6.8 References

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1. Helserisiko fra CO₂-fangst er vurdert på nytt. https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/aktuelt/fagmeldinger/2024/januar-2024/helserisiko-fra-co2-fangst-er-vurdert-pa-nytt/
   (In English: https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/publikasjoner/2024/januar-2024/new-knowledge-on-health-effects-co2-capture/)
2. Pål Tore Svendsen (red.), CO₂-håndtering på Kårstø, NVE 2006, https://publikasjoner.nve.no/rapport/2006/rapport2006_13.pdf
   (In English: https://publikasjoner.nve.no/report/2007/report2007_02.pdf)
3. Knudsen, S.; Moe, M.K.; Schlabach, M.; Schmidbauer, N.; Dye, C., Environmental impact of amines from CO₂ capture https://nilu.no/publikasjon/21790/
4. Knudsen, Svein; Karl, Matthias; Randall, Scott, Summary report: Amine emissions to air during carbon capture. Phase I: CO₂ and amines screening study for effects to the environment. https://nilu.brage.unit.no/nilu-xmlui/handle/11250/2718655
5. Karl M, Brooks S, Wright R, Knudsen S. Amines Worst Case Studies Worst Case Studies on Amine Emissions from CO₂ Capture Plants (Task 6). NILU: OR 78/2008. https://nilu.brage.unit.no/nilu-xmlui/handle/11250/2718672
6. HSE Studies https://ccsnorway.com/hse-studies/
7. Studies with focus on amine components, https://tcmda.com/studies-with-focus-on-amine-components

6.9 Additional relevant references

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6.10 In Norwegian «Tillatelse til virksomhet etter forurensningsloven» mv for TCM, Norcem og Klementsrud

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• Høringer. Norcem Brevik søker om endring av tillatelse etter forurensningsloven (2021), https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/hoeringer/2021/august-2021/norcem-brevik-soker-om-endring-av-tillatelse-etter-forurensningsloven/
• Vedtak om endret tillatelse til forurensende virksomhet – Norcem AS Brevik (2022), https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/sharepoint/downloaditem/?id=01FM3LD2TTSVCZCVWZL5AIQZEIIUNYVNXP
• Høringer. Fortum Oslo Varme AS søker om etablering av karbonfangstanlegg, (2021), https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/hoeringer/2021/august-2021/fortum-oslo-varme-as-soker-om-etablering-av-karbonfangstanlegg-/
• Vedtak om tillatelse til forurensende virksomhet – Hafslund Oslo Celsio AS (2023) https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/sharepoint/downloaditem/?id=01FM3LD2XJXD4ICHWGGJCYXVIYNMKQDINB
  

Standards

7.1 Standardisation – a key to CCS success

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Standardisation is crucial for the development and implementation of technologies and processes that can provide safe, efficient and reliable carbon capture and storage around the world. Through the CLIMIT programme, support has been given to operators in Norway who are spearheading the work on establishing common international standards for carbon capture, transport and storage.

The CLIMIT programme is Norway’s national programme for the research, development and demonstration of carbon capture, transport and storage technology. The programme is supported by the Research Council of Norway and Gassnova and has a goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from industry through the development of sustainable CCS solutions. An important component in this work is the development and implementation of international standards. This is where the ISO plays a vital role.

This article will discuss the significance of standardisation work within the CLIMIT programme, and how this contributes to promoting CCS technology globally. Relevant ISO standards that have been developed and are still under development are also discussed.

7.1.1 Why standardisation is important

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Standardisation within the CCS sector focuses on establishing common guidelines, specifications and processes that operators across the world can follow for carbon capture, transportation and storage. From a CLIMIT perspective, standardisation has several important functions:

1. Safety and reliability: Standards ensure that technology used for carbon capture and storage is safe and reliable, which is essential for long-term storage in geological formations.
2. Efficiency and cost savings: Common standards reduce costs by enabling technologies to be developed at larger scale with uniform requirements. This also produces efficiency improvements in collaboration and saves time in the implementation process.
3. International acceptance and market development: For CCS to be a viable global solution, different countries must adopt the same standards. This makes it possible to build a market for technology exchange and implementation across national borders.
4. Confidence and regulatory support: Public and private investors require a high degree of security and confidence in technology. Standardisation makes it easier for authorities and regulators to provide necessary approvals.
   

7.1.2 Relevant ISO standards for CCS

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The ISO (International Organization for Standardization) has developed and continues to develop many standards that are directly relevant to CCS. These standards have a broad range of applications, from transport and storage to risk and environmental assessments. Here are some of the ISO standards related to CCS:

ISO 27912:2016 – Carbon dioxide capture — Carbon dioxide capture systems, technologies and processes: This standard describes the principles and information necessary to clarify the CO₂ capture system and provide stakeholders with the guidance and knowledge necessary for the development of a series of standards for CO₂ capture.

ISO 27914:2017 –Carbon dioxide capture, transportation, and geological storage – Geological storage: This standard describes the requirements for safe and efficient carbon storage in geological formations, including risk assessments, monitoring and securing storage sites. This standard is crucial for ensuring that storage sites have the necessary integrity for safe storage over time.

ISO 27917:2017 – Carbon dioxide capture, transportation, and geological storage – Quantification and verification: This standard provides methods for how stored CO₂ can be quantified and verified, which is crucial for monitoring and ensuring that CO₂ remains safely stored. This standardised approach makes it possible to document the storage results reliably and in a verifiable manner. This is crucial for international collaboration and trust that CCS projects deliver on environmental goals.

ISO/TR 27915:2017 – Carbon dioxide capture, transportation, and geological storage – Quantification and verification: This technical report provides guidelines and risk assessments of geological carbon storage, including methods for quantification and verification. The standard contributes to the identification, assessment and management of potential risks of storage projects in a systematic manner. This provides a safer storage process and increases trust that stored CO₂ remains safely in place over time.

ISO 27916:2019 – Carbon dioxide capture, transportation, and geological storage – Carbon dioxide storage using enhanced oil recovery (CO₂-EOR): This standard specifies methods and processes for storing CO₂ in salt water aquifers and underground formations. By standardising the processes for carbon storage in aquifers, this standard ensures that storage takes place in a safe and efficient manner. This promotes the use of aquifers as storage solutions and strengthens the international development of CCS.

ISO/TR 27918:2018 – Lifecycle risk management for integrated CCS projects: This standard is designed to be an information resource for the potential future development of a standard for overall risk management for CCS projects. The risks associated with any one stage of the CCS process (capture, transportation, or storage) are assumed to be covered by specific standard(s) within ISO/TC 265 and other national and/or international standards. For example, the risks associated with CO₂ transport by pipelines are covered in ISO 27913.

ISO 27919-2:2021 – Carbon dioxide capture Part 2: Evaluation procedure to assure and maintain stable performance of post-combustion CO₂ capture plant integrated with a power plant: This standard provides methods for the evaluation of carbon capture after combustion, focussing on integrations at power plants. This standard provides standardised evaluation criteria that ensure that capture systems can be assessed for efficiency and performance in a uniform manner, which is important for reducing carbon emissions from energy production.

ISO 27913:2024 – Carbon dioxide capture, transportation and geological storage — Pipeline transportation systems:This standard specifies the requirements and recommendations for the transportation of CO₂ streams from the capture site to the storage facility where it is primarily stored in a geological formation or used for other purposes (e.g. for enhanced oil recovery or CO₂ use). This standard also includes aspects of CO₂ stream quality assurance, as well as converging CO₂ streams from different sources. Transportation of CO₂ via ship, rail or on road is not covered in this document.

ISO/TR 27925:2023 – Carbon dioxide capture, transportation and geological storage – Cross cutting issues – Flow assurance: This standard describes and explains the physical and chemical phenomena, and the technical issues associated with flow assurance in the various components of a carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) system and provides information on how to achieve and manage flow assurance.

ISO/TR 27929:2024 – Transportation of CO₂ by ship: This standard provides insights into the essential aspects of CO₂ shipping and provides basic descriptions of how the CO₂ carrier and technology therein is technically integrated with the CCS value chain. It also includes a description of specific challenges of transporting CO2 as cargo, how this differs from other gases transported by ships today, and how this influences the ship design and operation.

7.2 CLIMIT’s role in ISO standardisation

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The CLIMIT programme has been active in promoting and supporting the implementation of standards in Norwegian CCS projects, as well as contributing to the development of new standards that reflect experience from Norwegian and international projects. CLIMIT works closely with standardisation organisations such as ISO and CEN (European Committee for Standardization) and participates in working groups that develop new standards.

This includes collaboration with operators such as Equinor, research institutes and technology manufacturers. The Northern Lights project is an example of how the ISO standards can be implemented in practice, and how projects can provide insights that can also influence the further development of these standards. In addition, CLIMIT has contributed to collating experiences from international collaborations through ECCSEL and CO₂ Field Lab, which has formed the basis for revisions to ISO standards to better reflect real-world operating conditions.

7.2.1 Examples of CLIMIT projects supporting standardisation work

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Through its various projects, the CLIMIT programme has actively contributed to the implementation and further development of relevant ISO standards. Some examples include:

• CO₂ Field Lab: This project has developed technology and methods for monitoring storage sites and detecting any leakages. Data and experience from this has contributed to the content of ISO 27914 and helped to define best practice for monitoring geological storage sites.
• ECCSEL ERIC: The European research collaboration ECCSEL ERIC aims to develop CCS infrastructure and test facilities. This project provides valuable data and test results.
• ALIGN-CCUS: The Align CCUS project works on the cost-effective implementation of CCS technology and has collated experiences from several European countries. This project has tested methods and technologies that contribute to meeting ISO requirements and improving frameworks for risk management and safety.

7.2.2 Led by Standards Norway

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The project ‘Administrative management of Norwegian participation in the development of ISO standards for CCS’ is led by Standards Norway, which will have administrative and standardisation management of the Norwegian CCS committee SN/K-544 and the contact with ISO/TC-265. Standards Norway will be responsible for organising annual committee meetings, participating in annual ISO/TC-265 meetings, secretariat responsibilities and carrying out knowledge dissemination through Standards Norway.

The international standardisation work for CCS is taking place in an ISO technical committee (TC-265). Standards Norway was designated by the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries as Norway’s official representative at the ISO.

Standards Norway has established a Norwegian CCS committee (SN/K-544) that participates in ISO/TC-265. The Norwegian committee consists of Norwegian CCS experts. Some of these experts have received support from CLIMIT Demo to participate in international standardisation efforts. The following companies have received support from CLIMIT Demo over the period 2013-2026: Standards Norway, DNV, Tel-Tek, IOM LAW Advokatfirma AS, Sintef Energy, Cauchois Consulting, IFE.

The project will support Norwegian efforts in international standardisation work to contribute to the development of standards of a high professional quality and use value and to ensure that Norwegian interests are safeguarded by the standards.

7.2.3 ISO Technical Committee

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This project is led by the Institute for Energy Technology (IFE), and its main activities include participation as an expert in the working groups “2 Transportation” and “5 Cross Cutting Issues” in ISO/TC-265, as well as participating in meetings in the Norwegian CCS committee.

A technical report on the transportation of CO₂ by ship will be developed. The work on the report will be led by the Norwegian committee, and the expertise of IFE will be needed for this work.

The goal is that knowledge and results from IFE projects be shared through the international work on developing technical and reporting standards.

7.2.4 ISO Technical Report CO₂ shipping

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The project is led by Det Norske Veritas (DNV). Members of ISO/TC-265 and other stakeholders have requested standards for CO₂ shipping in CCS chains. Based on this, ISO/TC-265 has established a working group on shipping.  This working group will lead this project and develop a technical report on CO₂ shipping in the CCS chain. The report will be the first step in and a basis for the development of equivalent/corresponding standards.

The report will address requirements and recommendations for the safe and reliable design, construction and operation of CO₂ transport ships that are not already covered by existing guidelines, rules and regulations, including IGC code, flag state and ship classification rules. The report will also contain a description of concepts for shipping, a discussion of the physical qualities of CO₂ relevant for shipping and an assessment of health, safety and environment (HSE).

The aim of the project is that the technical report be completed and approved by ISO/TC-265.

7.2.5 Support for Norwegian legal expertise

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This project is led by IOM LAW Advokatfirma AS, as an expert in the international standardisation work in ISO/TC-265 Working Group 7 Transportation of CO₂ by Ship. IOM LAW Advokatfirma AS received support from CLIMIT Demo over the period 2017-2026 to participate as an ISO expert.

The aim of the project is to help safeguard Norwegian interests in the development of standards of a high professional quality and use value.

7.2.6 Analysis of regulatory learning and the road ahead

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This project is led by IOM LAW Advokatfirma AS, which will analyse potential solutions to the named challenges and gaps in relation to Gassnova’s publication on regulatory learning from planning and implementation of the Longship project. Gassnova’s report on regulatory learning highlights a number of regulatory challenges and gaps in the existing framework, including:

• How to create more predictable frameworks for responsibility, transfer of responsibility, third-party access and monitoring of stored CO₂.
• Analysis of the ability to create more incentives for biogenic CO₂.
• Analysis of Norwegian, European and international regulatory frameworks for comparative learning.
• Comparison with the regulatory framework for petroleum activities to assess the reuse of principles and models.
• A study of the use of the standards and technical reports published under ISO/TC-265 to reduce the gap in the regulatory framework.

The aim is to find concrete solutions to the challenges that Gassnova’s report highlights, something which can contribute to predictable operational frameworks that treat operators equally.

7.2.7 ISO standards create a common framework

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Standardisation work, and in particular ISO standardisation, is crucial for CLIMIT’s goal of promoting CCS technology as an effective and safe solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The ISO standards provide a common framework for ensuring quality, reliability and security, and CLIMIT projects such as Northern Lights, CO₂ Field Lab, ECCSEL and Align CCUS have been involved in developing and implementing these standards in practice.

By focussing on a common framework for safe and efficient CCS, the ISO standards will facilitate the global roll-out of CCS.  CLIMIT’s support for the standardisation work contributes to a sustainable and robust market for CCS solutions.

Industrial Clusters

8.1 Success through cluster collaboration for CCS

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Point source emissions in the processing industry account for one fifth of carbon emissions in Norway. CLIMIT has provided extensive support to projects for collaboration in industrial clusters to find a solution to this major challenge – efforts that have yielded good results. 

Decarbonisation of industrial and energy resources is one of CLIMIT’s three focus areas. In Norway, Heidelberg Materials (formerly Norcem) in Brevik has been a front-runner within the industry with major point source emissions. The scientific basis for establishing a carbon capture facility was based on several CLIMIT-supported projects and a dedicated test centre, which tested different capture technologies under real-world conditions on waste gases from the cement factory in Brevik. Heidelberg Materials was then able to take the decision to implement fullscale carbon capture. This was the start of Longship, which quickly saw Hafslund Celsio (formerly Fortum) sign on for carbon capture at the energy recovery plant at Klemetsrud.

8.2 Longship has contributed to industry momentum

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Through the decision on Longship, a demonstration project for a fullscale CCS value chain in Norway, greater momentum was built around CCS in the industry in Norway. This has been important industrial actors that have no clear pathway to decarbonisation by 2050 without CCS. This was also clearly shown through Prosess21 in 2020, where the processing industry collaborated to produce a roadmap to 2050, cf. prosess21_rapport_hovedrapport_web_oppdatert_060821.pdf.

8.3 Accounts for one fifth of Norwegian emissions

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The largest point source emissions in the processing industry see emissions of 9.9 million tons of CO₂ equivalents, which accounts for 21 percent of Norwegian emissions, cf. Prosess21, 241010-industribeskrivelse-2024-m-forside.pdf

Industry emissions from the processing industry and the waste incineration/energy recovery industry represents on of the largest point source emissions in Norway. Many of these are the largest point source emissions in their regions (cities/municipalities/county municipalities).

8.4 Formation of industrial collaboration in clusters

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Generally speaking, the industry has lots of expertise in the production of its own products, but little knowledge and expertise in carbon capture. CLIMIT understands this and early-phase feasibility studies provided an opportunity to apply for support to investigate carbon capture at their own facilities.

In 2018, the Eyde Cluster understood the advantage of gathering industry together in Agder to discuss a common challenge: CCS. Much of the industry in Norway is represented by this cluster, including aluminium (Alcoa), ferrosilicon/silicon (Elkem), ferromanganese (Eramet), waste incineration (Returkraft) and silicon carbide (Fiven). This led to other areas with this type of industry also starting joint investigations into carbon capture and shared intermediate storage sites, local infrastructure and transport to storage sites at their facilities elsewhere in Norway. The first clusters were the CCS Eyde Cluster, CO₂-hub Nord, the Øra Cluster/Borg CO₂ and CCS Midt-Norge, then later Grenland Industrial CCS (GICCS) in 2021 and CCS Haugalandet in 2022.

Working in clusters alongside separate feasibility studies supported by CLIMIT at participants’ factories has led to many industrial stakeholders having gained a sufficient knowledge basis to apply for support for more detailed studies at ENOVA. Examples of this are Erament, which has been/is engaged in multiple clusters: the Eyde Cluster, CCS Haugalandet and Grenland Industrial CCS, Elkem and Ferroglobe (part of the CO₂-hub Nord) and Statkraft Varme as leader of CCS Midt-Norge, cf.

• https://kommunikasjon.ntb.no/pressemelding/17961810/eramet-norway-far-132-millioner-kroner-til-energi–og-klimaprosjekter-i-sauda?publisherId=17848299
• https://www.elkem.com/no/investor/announcements/announcement/?itemid=CEB799FA3E5A68E6
• https://<www.enova.no/om-enova/om-organisasjonen/teknologiportefoljen/utredningsprosjekt-karbonfangst-i-trondheim/

8.5 The importance of collaboration between industry and research

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In connection with early-phase learning and knowledge development in industry and clusters, SINTEF Industry and SINTEF Energy Research’s expertise in carbon capture and techno-economic feasibility studies have been of great importance. By being demanding customers of SINTEF’s analyses, the industry has built up a large amount knowledge. This has led to the industry in its own projects, many of which are supported by CLIMIT, progressing with its own more detailed feasibility studies at their facilities. Elkem, Erament and waste incineration/energy recovery facilities are good examples of this.

8.6 Climate cure for waste incineration in Norway

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Waste incineration plants in Norway are not regarded as part of the processing industry. However, through CLIMIT-supported clusters/consortia, as well as CCUS Norway, these two have found themselves facing shared challenges in respect of CCS, CCU and CDR.

The largest Norwegian waste incineration plants have also created their own group with their own projects called Klimakur for Avfallsforbrenning i Norge (KAN) (Climate cure for waste incineration in Norway), where they are working to put in place a generic business model for CCS from waste incineration.

In autumn 2024, KAN received a grant from CLIMIT for a third study to further assess opportunities for CDR and carbon credits. The sale of carbon credits could facilitate CCS at waste incineration plants, whose waste gases contain 50% CO₂. This may also be interesting for the processing industry, which is replacing fossil fuels with biomass and increasing biogenic emissions in waste gases.

Check KAN – Klimakur for Avfallsforbrenning for information regarding the CCS manual for waste incineration, KAN’s position and other useful information.

8.7 Industry collaboration on CCS is important

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CLIMIT has contribute to industry, through collaboration with CCS industrial clusters, separate feasibility studies and pilot testing at their own facilities developing knowledge about carbon capture at their own facilities. A target has also been set to have CCS at multiple Norwegian facilities by 2030-2035.

Through the CLIMIT-supported cluster projects, the industry has gained a common arena for:

• an overview of the costs of CCS at their own facilities in relation to other industries
• cooperating on joint infrastructure solutions as well as promoting transport and storage companies. This can reduce costs and risks when implementing CCS
• jointly discussing which framework conditions and incentives should be in place to ensure CCS at Norwegian industrial facilities
• learning and knowledge sharing around challenges and opportunities for CCS. Sharing knowledge and learning is easier for waste gases that are not directly related to proprietary processing technology for the production and sale of products
  

International Collaboration

9.1 Increased impact from International Research Collaboration

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The CLIMIT program has for many years allocated around a quarter of available funds to international joint calls. This is because international research collaboration can more easily create an international market for CO₂ Capture and Storage (CCS).

9.1.1 Collaboration Coordinated by the Research Council of Norway

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The Research Council of Norway has been the coordinator for the platform Accelerating CCS Technologies (ACT), where 16 countries collaborated on four joint calls from 2016 to 2022. ACT is an ERA-NET Cofund, which means a collaboration supported by the European Commission through the EU’s research and innovation framework program, Horizon Europe. ACT has awarded a total of 108 million euros in support to 39 projects. Norwegian partners have participated in 26 of these projects, with total support to Norwegian partners through CLIMIT amounting to 23 million euros.

Countries and regions participating in ACT are shown in the map below:

Figure 1: ACT member countries: Alberta-province in Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, the Nordic countries, Romania, Spani, Switzerland, Turky, UK and USA (Illustration: ACT)

9.1.2 ACT Continues in CETP

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ACT will continue as an integrated part of the Clean Energy Transition Partnership (CETP). This is a larger collaboration for research and innovation across the entire energy sector. CO₂ Capture, transport, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is one of many fields included in the collaboration. More than 50 funding agencies from 33 countries participate in CETP.

CETP has annual joint calls, with the first launched in 2022. The following year, 45 new projects started, including 10 projects within CCUS, of which six have Norwegian partners. CETP’s second call resulted in an additional 62 new projects starting in December 2024, including nine new projects within CO2 management, of which four have Norwegian partners.

CETP will have deadlines for submitting applications every November in the coming years. CLIMIT typically allocates a budget of 30-40 million NOK to CETP’s calls. These funds are intended for Norwegian partners within CCS projects. In addition, the Research Council of Norway contributes funds to Norwegian applicants in other fields such as renewable energy and hydrogen.

Countries participating in CETP is shown in the map below:

Figure 2. CETP member countries are marked. In addition to many European countries, there are several other members, including USA, Canada, India, Israel, South and Tunisia.  (Illustrasjon: CETP)

9.2 International Collaboration Yields Results

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The international research platform Accelerating CCS Technologies (ACT) has over the years supported 39 projects within CCUS. This has helped close knowledge gaps and establish well-functioning collaboration on research, development, and industrialization across borders.

The relationships created between academia and industry have made important contributions to disseminating knowledge beyond the scientific community. The projects have delivered results highly relevant for the development and construction of industrial-scale CCS.

The results from international collaboration are documented in the article “ACT: How International Collaboration Fosters CCUS Research and Innovation“, which was presented at the GHGT16 conference in 2022. The main findings are summarized below.

9.2.1 Larger Grants Due to Close Collaboration

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Through ACT, researchers have been able to work much more closely together at an international level. ACT has brought together participants from several countries, where the flow of knowledge, competence, and data across borders has been much more efficient than would have been possible through national calls alone.

Some countries have allocated fresh money to ACT calls, while others have redirected national funds to these calls. Consequently, some countries have ended up with less funding for national calls within CCS. However, overall, ACT has resulted in higher budgets for research and innovation within CCS than would have been the case without ACT. The significant contribution from the European Commission to the first ACT call would likely have been directed to other fields if the ACT platform had not been established.

It is also believed that several countries have more comprehensive research and innovation within CCS than would have been the case without ACT.

International cooperation can also lead to faster investments in up-scaling with a lower cost per ton of CO₂ that is captured. However, this is difficult to quantify.

9.3 High Industrial Participation Has Been a Priority

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Applications with high industrial participation and relevance have been prioritized. The calls have also requested applications that align with the EU’s Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) and Mission Innovation’s research priorities within CCS.

ACT projects have received funding from several countries, distributing the financial burden across multiple funding agencies. Furthermore, ACT has a positive structural effect on international research and innovation through the coordination of research goals and activities across borders.

9.3.1 Challenging Administration

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ACT has resulted in more administration because each country has its own procedures for managing calls for applications. Setting up international calls that respect national procedures in all participating countries has required significant administrative resources from all funding agencies. Effective administration of the calls has only been possible through a pragmatic attitude from all participating countries, which has been essential for efficient and coordinated application processing.

Projects funded through ACT have been asked to establish consortium agreements signed by all project partners. This has been challenging for several projects due to significant variations in legal procedures and cultures across countries. Projects with only European partners have often handled this relatively smoothly by building their consortium agreements on templates from the EU’s framework programs, Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe. However, such templates do not always work for projects with partners outside Europe. Researchers have challenged the ACT consortium to establish a template for consortium agreements that fits all partners in all countries, but this has not been possible to achieve.

9.3.2 Annual Workshops

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ACT has organized annual workshops focused on knowledge sharing. This has created an efficient and fruitful flow of information and new knowledge. The workshops have provided excellent networking opportunities between projects and have connected ACT projects with key stakeholders outside ACT. Projects funded by ACT have been encouraged to emphasize dissemination, making results widely available to international researchers, industrial stakeholders, and decision-makers interested in CCUS.

International collaboration can be of greater importance for CCS than other fields because CO₂ point sources and potential utilization or storage sites are unevenly distributed across countries. Some countries can find it beneficial to store their CO₂ in other countries. Collaboration already in the research phase increases the likelihood of transnational implementation of the developed strategies and technologies.

The ACT collaboration on joint calls has resulted in larger projects with a higher focus on industrial needs than is usual through national calls. This gives ACT a particularly large potential for the spread of results.

9.3.3 Results with High Relevance for Large-Scale Projects

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Research and innovation projects supported by ACT have delivered results highly relevant for industrial large-scale projects, such as Longship in Norway, Porthos in the Netherlands, and the UK’s large-scale CCS initiative.

For example, the Pre-ACT project has delivered new knowledge on how to handle pressure build-up during CO₂ injection. Industrial stakeholders have pointed out that this knowledge is of great value for the Northern Lights CO₂ storage project. Another example is the ACORN project, which led to a CO₂ storage license in the UK. A third example is the ALIGN CCUS project, which generated a blueprint for scaling up CCUS to industrial scale.

9.4 Strong Focus on Knowledge Sharing

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The ACT collaboration has been a fruitful platform for knowledge sharing, not only during the annual workshops organized by the consortium but also in activities organized by the projects themselves. Several ACT-funded projects have worked closely together, sharing knowledge, competence, and results, and reaching out to relevant stakeholders in joint workshops. Additionally, knowledge sharing is ensured by continuously updating the ACT website with information and results from ACT projects.

The first CETP projects started at the turn of the year 2023-24 and have so far delivered interesting results. Everything indicates that CETP projects will continue where ACT left off and deliver results of great importance for the development and deployment of large-scale CCS.

9.5 Projects

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ACT and CETP projects within CO₂ management are listed below.

Table 1. Projects funded under the first ACT Call for proposals. Project period 2017-2020. See ACT web site for details

Table 2. Projects funded under the second ACT Call for proposals. Project period 2019-2022. See ACT web site for details.

Table 3. Projects funded under the third ACT Call for proposals. Project period 2021-2024. See ACT web site for details.

Table 4. Projects funded under the fourth ACT Call for proposals. Project period 2022-2025/26. See ACT web site for details.

Table 5. Projects funded under the CETP Joint Call 2022. Project period 2023-2026. See CETP website for details.

Knowledge sharing

10.1 Increased level of knowledge about CCS worldwide

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“CLIMIT has been a driving force in sharing knowledge about CCS technologies,” says Liv Lønne Dille, Senior Advisor at Gassnova. “An important goal for the programme is that we share knowledge and experiences from the projects that receive support.”

Knowledge dissemination is enshrined in all contracts with the involved stakeholders. Over the years, CLIMIT has also organised a number of its own events with presentations and exchanges of ideas related to results and experiences from the research projects.

“Connecting different stakeholders and communities has resulted in applications from many promising projects that would not have been realised without this dialogue,” Lønne Dille continued.

10.2 CLIMIT Summit – an important arena

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Since 2010, the CLIMIT programme has organised its own event days every other year, where representatives from the portfolio present the results of their projects. CLIMIT Days have seen increased participation each time. The programme has changed over the years and become steadily more diverse and international. In recent years, the CLIMIT Summit has gathered together 200-300 people with broad international participation.

A separate CDR conference will be held in 2025 under the CLIMIT umbrella in collaboration with Mission Innovation. A number of side-events are being organised in addition to this. Tours are also being organised to Longship operators and to the Test Centre Mongstad.

10.3 CLIMIT webinars in collaboration with industry

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CLIMIT organised five digital webinars over the period 2021–2023 that sought to bring together and connect stakeholder industries with comparable interests and facing similar challenges. The stakeholders themselves selected the webinar topics based on common challenges that were the subject of discussion in clusters and industrial partnerships.

• What can future CCS projects learn from Norcem (now Heidelberg Materials) and FOV’s (now Hafslund Celsio) experiences up to now?
• What is the state of CCUS in Sweden? (Part 1)
• What is the state of CCUS in Sweden? (Part 2)
• Logistics and local infrastructure
• What’s happening in Europe – and how do they make it happen?

The response to the webinars was positive. Various workshops focussing on different topics were also held in the past.

10.4 National and international cooperation

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CLIMIT has focussed heavily on international cooperation through the platforms Accelerating CCS Technologies (ACT) and Clean Energy Transition Partnership (CETP). Since 2016, annual workshops have been held with a focus on knowledge sharing within these initiatives. Information from the last workshop in September 2024 is available here and summaries of previous workshops are available on ACT’s website.

10.5 Important digital channels for knowledge sharing

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Since its inception in 2004, the CLIMIT programme has had an actively updated website. It has provided information to potential applicants about the programme’s mandate, regulations and the application process for the different parts of the programme. The website also provides an overview and descriptions of the projects in the portfolio, as well as updates about these projects.

“On average, a new report is published every other week, which highlights the significance of knowledge sharing for the programme,” says Lønne Dille climit.no/en sees about 7,000 visitors annually, who on average spend 2.5 minutes there each visit.

Other important channels for sharing information from CLIMIT are LinkedIn, as well as the website “Heilo-CCUS”, which highlights CCS projects from CLIMIT, Enova and Innovation Norway.

Finally, it is important to state that CLIMIT projects have resulted in a number of publications in recognised scientific journals Many patents have also been filed for Norwegian technologies developed with support from CLIMIT.